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FAQ's

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Table of Contents

1. Water (Filters/Additives/Test Kits)
1. Source Water - City Mains Water Is Not Good Enough
1. Background
2. DI Filters
3. RO Filters
4. Further Comments About Water
2. Additives
3. Testable Parameters
1. Alkalinity
2. Calcium
3. pH
4. Nitrate (NO3)
5. Phosphate (PO4)
6. Specific Gravity
4. Water Changes
2. Filtration and Equipment
1. Live Rock
2. Protein Skimmers
1. Counter Current Air Driven Protein Skimmers
2. Venturi Protein Skimmers
3. Protein Skimmer Considerations
3. Granular Activated Carbon (GAC)
4. Other Chemical Filter Media (X-Whatever)
5. Mechanical Filtration
6. Under Gravel Filters (UGF)
7. Reverse Flow UGFs (RUGF)
8. Trickle Filters
9. Algae Scrubbers (somewhat long)
10. Live Sand
3. Lights
1. General Discussion
2. Detail Discussion
3. Lighting Data
4. Cost Estimates
5. Stock
1. Common to Scientific Name Cross Reference
2. Coral Aggression Chart
3. Corals [Cnidaria (Anthozoa)]
4. Shelled Things
5. Algae
6. Possible Problems
7. Hermit Crabs
6. General Catalogs
7. Questions and Answers
8. Book Review
9. Useful Tables
10. Credits

US EPA requirements for water quality from municipal sources are insufficiently pure for reef tank usage. For instance, the EPA standard for Nitrate (as NO3-N) is 10.0 mg/l, over twice the recommended maximum level. Extremely toxic (to inverts) heavy metals such as copper are allowed at levels as high as 1 mg/l.

Most public water supplies have contaminates well below the EPA levels and some reef tanks have done fine on some public supplies. In general, however, it is recommended that some form of post processing be performed on public water before it is introduced into the reef tank.

Although some people have access to distilled, de-ionized or reverse osmosis water from public sources, most will use a home sized system to produce their tank water. The two most common systems used are de-ionization resins, and reverse osmosis membranes.

De-ionization (DI) units come in two basic varieties: mixed bed and separate bed. Two chambers are used in separate bed units, one for anion resins (to filter negatively charged ions), the other for cation resins (to filter positively charged ions). Mixed bed units use a single chamber with a mix of anion and cation resins.

DI units are 100% water efficient with no waste water. They are typically rated in terms of grains of capacity (a grain is 0.065 grams). Once the capacity of the unit is reached it either needs to be replaced or recharged (using strong acids and bases). Recharging is normally only an option for separate bed units.

A quick check of the local water quality charts (normally available free from the water supply company) will reveal the water purification capacity of a given DI unit. For example, if a unit rated at 1000 grains is purchased and the local water supply has a hardness of 123 mg/l (Missouri River, USA), then the unit capacity is (1000*0.065)/0.123 = 528 liters = 139.5 gallons of purified water.

Water production rates for DI units varies, but is typically around 10-15 gallons/hour.

Reverse osmosis (RO) units are normally based upon one of two membrane technologies: cellulose triacetate (CTA) and thin film composite (TFC). CTA based systems are typically cheaper and do not filter as well (90-95% rejection rates). TFC based systems cost more but have higher pollution rejection rates (95%-98%). CTA membranes break down over time due to bacterial attack whereas TFC membranes are more or less impervious to this. CTA units are not recommended for reef tank purposes. RO filters work by forcing water under pressure against the membrane. The membranes allow the small water molecules to pass through while rejecting most of the larger contaminates. RO units waste a lot of water. The membrane usually has 4-6 times as much water passing by it as it allows though. Unfortunately, the more water wasted, the better the membrane usually is at rejecting pollutants. Also, higher waste water flows are usually associated with longer membrane life. What this means in practice is that 300 gallons of total water may be required to produce 50 gallons of purified water.

Like any filter, RO membranes will eventually clog and need to be replaced. Replacement membranes cost around $50-$100. Prefilters are often placed in front of the membrane to help lengthen the lifetime. These filters commonly consist of a micron sediment filter and a carbon block filter. The micron filter removes large particles and the carbon filter removes chlorine, large organic molecules and some heavy metals. Of course, the use of prefilters makes initial unit cost more expensive but they should pay for themselves in longer membrane life.

RO units are rated in terms of gallons per day of output with 10-50 gallon/day units typically available. Note that the waste water produced by a RO unit is fine for hard water loving freshwater fish such as Rift Lake cichlids. Some route the reject water to the family garden. The Spectapure brand of RO units has a good reputation.

The ultimate in home water purification comes from combining the two technologies and processing the water from an RO unit though a DI unit. If a very high grade DI unit is used, water equivalent to triple distillation purification levels can be achieved. Since the water entering the DI unit can be 50 times purer than tapwater, the DI unit can process 50 times as much before the resins are exhausted. This significantly reduces the replacement or recharging cost of the DI unit.

If only one filter can be afforded, and waste water is not a concern, then it is recommended that a TFC RO unit with pre-filters be purchased. If waste water is a concern, or if only a small quantity of make-up water will be required (say, for a single 20 gallon tank), then a DI unit would be the preferred choice.

City water is unstable. Many cities modify their treatment process several times a year, dramatically changing its suitability for reef usage. For instance, Portland has great reef water - most, but not all, of the year.

Calcium (Ca) - required addition. A range of 400-450 ppm Ca++ (10-11 mM) is recommended. The preferred method is the usage of Kalkwasser (Limewater) for all evaporation make-up water. The use of Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) is known to cause problems with alkalinity (provable by balancing the relevant chemical reactions occurring in the tank when CaCl2 is added). Still, CaCl2 is occasionally useful to repair serious Ca++ deficits.

The efficacy of chelated calcium products available for reef aquaria is questionable. To the best of our knowledge, there exists no scientific evidence indicating that chelated calcium is especially available to corals and other CaCO3 depositing invertebrates. Nothing is known about the uptake of chelated calcium products by coral. And most importantly, there exists no evidence showing that chelated calcium products support stony coral growth rates in excess of, or even comparable to growth rates documented in aquaria where calcium is supplied as aqueous Ca(OH)2 [kalkwasser.]

Chelated calcium products also interfere with the ability to measure actual calcium levels in the aquarium. In particular, chelated calcium cannot be measured by any kit which uses EDTA titration, including the highly recommended HACH kit. Some people find the SeaChem kit, which does measure chelated calcium, to be impossible to read with any accuracy.

Until such a time as vendors supplying chelated calcium products make available well conceived, carefully documented uptake and growth studies with their products, or the same experiments are performed and published by third parties, we regard the use of chelated calcium products in the reef aquarium to be experimental at best, especially when kalkwasser and other non-chelated calcium sources are KNOWN to us to support the growth and even reproduction of stony corals in the home aquarium.

Iodine (I) - enhances soft coral growth. It is removed by skimming.

Strontium (Sr) - used rapidly by most hard corals (weekly additions usually performed).

Buffers - increase alkalinity and control pH. Desired range is 2.5-3.5 meq/L (7-10 dKH) alkalinity. Alkalinity can be raised by the addition of one of many commercial buffer compounds. The addition of kalkwasser (saturated Ca(OH)2 solution - also known as "limewater"), which is often done to maintain calcium levels, will also raise the alkalinity level. SeaChem's Marine Buffer, Reef Builder and Kent's Superbuffer dKH are popular. The Coralife and Thiel buffer products have had less favorable reviews.

Iron (Fe) - Used by algaes. Add this if you want good macroalgae growth. Be sure that macroalgae growth is favored or else plaguelevels of hair algae may result.

Copper (Cu) - Used as a medication in fish-only tanks. Copper is highly toxic to invertebrates, even in very small concentrations.

DO NOT USE THIS, IN ANY FORM, EVER, IN A REEF TANK OR ANY TANK WHICH CONTAINS INVERTEBRATES. PERIOD!

Other additives, especially the commercial "secret formula" mixtures, are more controversial. Some people report good results from some of them other people report disaster or no effect. Experiment cautiously with them if desired.

Alkalinity is a measure of the acid buffering capacity of a solution. That is, it is a measure of the ability of a solution to resist a decrease in pH when acids are added. Since acids are normally produced by the biological action of the reef tank contents, alkalinity in a closed system has a natural tendency to go down. Additives are used to keep it at a proper level.

rect alkalinity levels allow hard corals and coralline algae to properly secrete new skeletal material. When alkalinity levels drop, the carbonate ions needed are not available and the process slows or stops.

alinity is measured in one of three units: milliequivalents per liter (meq/l), German degrees of hardness (dKH) or parts per million of calcium carbonate (ppm CaCO3). Any of the units may be employed but dKH is most commonly used in the aquarium hobby and meq/l is used exclusively in modern scientific literature. The conversion for the three units is:

            1 meq/l = 2.8 dKH = 50 ppm CaCO3

[As an aside, there is an imperial unit of alkalinity and hardness which is 'grains per gallon'. The water softening industry uses this unit. 1 gpg = 17 ppm CaCO3.]

A word of caution about the ppm CaCO3 unit is in order. The 'ppm CaCO3' unit reports the concentration of CaCO3 in pure water that would provide the same buffering capacity as the water sample in question. This does not mean the sample contains that much CaCO3. In fact, it tells you nothing about how much of the buffering is due to carbonates, it is only a measure of equivalency.

Alkalinity is often confused with carbonate hardness since both participate in acid neutralization and test kits may express both in either of the three units. However, carbonate hardness is technically a measure of only the carbonate species in equilibria whereas alkalinity measures the total acid binding ions present which may include sulfates, hydroxides, borates and others in addition to carbonates. In natural seawater, though, carbonates make up 96% of the alkalinity so equating alkalinity with carbonate hardness isn't too far off.

Recommended values for alkalinity vary depending on who's work you read. Natural surface seawater has an alkalinity of about 2.4 meq/l. Following are levels recommended by various authors.

From John Tullock (1991) "The Reef Tank Owner's Manual":

page 46 - Alkalinity range should be 3.5 to 5.0 meq/l.
page 94 - Alkalinity reading of 2.5-5.0 meq/l is proper.
page 188- Alkalinity should be about 3.5 meq/l. (In reference to maintaining Tridacna clams.)

Albert Thiel (1989), in "Small Reef Aquarium Basics" recommends 5.35-6.45 meq/l. This is an Artificially high level which may initiate a "snowstorm" of CaCO3 precipitate. Most reef aquarists do not believe in such extreme and unnatural levels and recommend 3.0-3.5 meq/l as a good range instead.

The chemistry of how alkalinity, pH, CO2, carbonate, bicarbonate, and other ions interrelate is fairly complex and is beyond the scope and detail of this document.

Some recommended test kits for alkalinity are the SeaTest kit and the LaMotte kit. The SeaTest kit is very inexpensive and is one of the few SeaTest kits suitable for reef use. The SeaTest kitmeasures in division of 0.5 meq/l or, if the amount of solution is doubled, 0.25 meq/l. The SeaTest kit uses titration in which the acid and indicator are included in the same reagent. The LaMotte kit is a little more expensive, though still fairly cheap, and is somewhat more accurate. The unit of titration is 4 ppm CaCO3 although in practice, one drop from the titration tube may be up to twice this amount making the resolution about 0.15 meq/l. The Lamotte kit has a separate indicator tablet and acid reagent which is a nice feature.

Calcium content is referred to as 'calcium hardness' and is measured either in parts per million of calcium ion (ppm Ca++) or parts per million equivalent calcium carbonate (ppm CaCO3). Calcium hardness is often confused with alkalinity and carbonate hardness since the 'ppm CaCO3' unit may be used for all three. As with alkalinity, a calcium level expressed as X ppm CaCO3 does not imply that X ppm of calcium carbonate is present in the tank; it merely states that the sample contains an equivalent amount of calcium as if X ppm of CaCO3 were added to pure water. The reading also does not tell you how much carbonate is present.

Calcium hardness test kits are different from alkalinity kits. Some people have reported difficulties with the LaMotte calcium hardness kit. The Hach 'Total Hardness and Calcium' kit has not had these reports. Both express results in ppm CaCO3. The relationship between CaCO3 and Ca++ is:

            1 ppm CaCO3 = 0.4 ppm Ca++

The results from a test kit reading in ppm CaCO3 may be converted to the molar concentration scale by dividing by 100.

            100 ppm CaCO3 = 1 mM Ca++

             40 ppm Ca++  = 1 mM Ca++

Calcium levels of natural surface seawater are around 420 ppm Ca++ (10.5 mM). In a well running reef tank you will notice, sometimes dramatic, calcium depletion. Calcium addition in some form is essential. A calcium level above 400 ppm is required and a range of 400-450 ppm Ca++ is recommended. Most reefkeeping books (see bibliography) explain the options for calcium addition.

The suggested reef tank range is 8.0 to 8.3. The pH should hold its own unless alkalinity is low. If alkalinity is OK but pH is low there is probably a buildup of organic acids or a serious lack of gas exchange (low water surface area to volume ratio).

Two units are used to measure nitrates: nitrate (NO3-) and nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N or just N). The ratio is:

            1 ppm NO3-N = 4.4 ppm NO3-.

Nitrates themselves may not be a problem but serve as an easily measured indicator of general water quality. Many hard to test for compounds like dissolved organics tend to have levels that correlate well with nitrate levels in typical tanks.

Different authors cite varying upper nitrate values permissible. No higher than 5 ppm NO3- is a good number with less than 0.25 ppm recommended. Unpolluted seawater has nitrate values below detectable levels of hobbyist test kits, so "immeasureable" is the goal to strive for.

Most test kits measure nitrate-nitrogen. Do not forget to multiply by 4.4 to get the ionic nitrate reading. LaMotte makes a nitrate test kit that will measure down to 0.25 ppm NO3-N. Hach makes one good to 0.02 ppm NO3-N, about 10x more sensitive, but you must be sure to order the saltwater reagents. They will only sell you the saltwater reagents in addition to the regular kit with the freshwater reagents, not in place of them, which is annoying. This makes the Hach kit about twice as expensive in the end as the LaMotte kit but the 10x increase in performance makes this more acceptable.

Phosphates, along with nitrates, are a primary nutrient of algae. Tanks with "high" levels of phosphates tend to be infested with hair algae. All authors cite zero ppm PO4 as a good goal. An upper level 0.1 ppm is recommended by Tullock (1991) with less than 0.05 ppm given by Thiel (1991).

Specific Gravity is temperature dependent. See the next table for a quick lookup of the recommended hydrometer readings. They are based upon our recommended S.G. of 1.025 at 60 degrees F.

   

Degrees F               Hydrometer reading.

   50                   1.0255

   55                   1.0252

   60                   1.0250

   65                   1.0246

   70                   1.0240

   75                   1.0233

   80                   1.0226

   85                   1.0218  (rather hot for most tanks)

   90                   1.0210  (very hot for most tanks)

1.025 recommended for reef tanks. Note that virtually all hydrometers are calibrated for measurements at a temperature of 60 F. Included below is a short table of temperature adjustments. Add the value shown to your hydrometer reading to get an accurate reading.

Degrees F               Correction

   50                   0.0005

   55                   0.0002

   60                   0.0000

   65                   0.0004

   70                   0.0010

   75                   0.0017

   80                   0.0024

   85                   0.0032

   90                   0.0040

For example: If the hydrometer reads 1.0235 at 80F, the actual Specific Gravity is 1.0235 + 0.0024 = 1.0259

Note: If your tank is between 75F and 80F, this means you should try and keep your Specific Gravity around 1.0230 to 1.0235.

For all practical purposes, the scale is linear between data points, so you can simply extrapolate between table entries. For instance, 78F is 3/5 the distance between 75F and 80F; the difference in corrections is 0.0024-0.0017 = 0.0007. 3/5th of 0.0007 is 0.0004. Add the offset 0.0004 to the base value for 75F of 0.0017 and you get a correction value for 78F of 0.0021.

It is fairly common in literature to see references to salinity in terms of Parts Per Thousand (PPT). For salinities in the range we are interested in, the conversion formulas are:

Here is a short table of some common values:

 Salinity                       Specific Gravity

  20 PPT                        1.0135

  25 PPT                        1.0174

  30 PPT                        1.0212

  35 PPT                        1.0251          * Typical Ocean Value * 

  40 PPT                        1.0289

"The solution to pollution is dilution". Water changes are used to correct problems. Minimal changes of 5%/year when all is set up and running smoothly may suffice. Some feel that an occasional water change of about 20% every 1-3 month is a reasonable safety net that may help prevent contaminate buildup and trace element depletion problems. Others recommend 5%-10% per week.

Live rock is simply old coral skeletons that have become the home to multiple small creatures. Typically reef tanks have 1-2 lbs of live rock per gallon of capacity. Pieces vary in size and shape from baseball size to dinner plate size in typical tanks. In large tanks (> 500 gallons) very large pieces of live rock tend to be used. These pieces may individually weight up to 85lbs (about the limit of what one person can handle).

The use of live rock greatly increases the bio-diversity in a tank. However, its primary purpose is to provide a home for bacteria that provide the biological filtration for the aquarium.

Cheap rock has low amounts of coralline algae and tends to grow hair algae well. It may be suitable for a soft coral only tank. Hair algae free coralline encrusted live rock (high quality Florida and/or pacific (Marshall and Tonga Island) rock is highly desirable. "Berlin" style tanks use high quality live rock (and protein skimming) as the primary filtration method with great success.

Required equipment. Don't undersize. Common wisdom is that you can't overskim a tank. Many of the more available commercial units are useful for tanks only in the 10-20 gallon range. Anything shorter than about a foot tall is essentially useless.

Unfortunetly, there is no formula to determine the required size of a skimmer. Amount of organic waste generating organisms (fish, coral, live rock, etc.) will obviously be the primary variable. All skimmers should be filled with TINY bubbles and have a milky white appearance. Any skimmer that doesn't match that requirement is not working optimally.

Two basic styles of skimmers exist: counter current air driven and venturi driven. Both styles work fine, both have tradeoffs. Both require tuning. Expect to spend some time over the first month or so learning how to keep your skimmer tuned. Below is some discussion about the two styles.

These skimmers usually require three pieces of equipment typically not sold with them: an air pump, air stones and a water pump. Total skimmer cost depends upon the kinds of equipment needed to run the skimmer properly.

The water pump injects the water to be skimmed into the unit. Some people use gravity to feed surface overflow water to the skimmer or divert part of the main circulation pump's return flow into the skimmer to eliminate the need for a dedicated pump. Otherwise a powerhead in the sump usually suffices for the water pump.

The air pump must be large enough and a sufficient number of air stones must be driven to make the skimming column milky white. In some skimmers one medium sized air pump like a Tetra Luft G and one air stone will be sufficient. Other skimmers need more to perform optimally. Air driven skimmers should use limewood air stones which will need to be replaced from time to time. Cheap limewood air stones have a reputation of needing to be replaced much more often than high quality stones. Coralife limewood air stones have a good reputation. Air stone replacement rate depends on your tank and skimmer; some people need to change them every 2 weeks others only after 3-4 months.

A.J. Nilsen recommends a 1x tank volume per hour turnover of both water and air by counter current air driven skimmers. Others feel each skimmer has an optimal rate of air and water processing and that if more skimming is desired then more or bigger skimmers should be added rather than trying to operate the current one beyond its optimal performance range.

Some hold that any skimmer under 4' high and 4" in diameter is too small for anything over about a 20 gallon reef.

These skimmers use the Bernoulli effect of the venturi valve to inject air bubbles into the water. This obviates the need of an air pump and air stones. The penalty is that a relatively large, high pressure (read expensive and powerhungry) dedicated water pump is mandatory for the venturi unit to inject sufficient amounts of air.

A particular commercial venturi skimmer may or may not come with a water pump. If it does supply a pump, it may or may not be sufficiently large to run the skimmer properly. At least some of the venturi skimmers easily available are not very well designed.

Venturi valves require occasional cleaning of the air opening. This is as simple as reaming the opening out with pipe cleaner every few days. An acid bath may be required if the unit clogs or gets coated with mineral deposits.

Most venturi style skimmers are more compact that CC skimmers. Manufactures state that they are more efficient, since they (supposedly) inject more air. Many suspect that design constraints (back pressure severely affects venturi performance) have more to do with the manufactured height (who would want a top injected 4' skimmer with air only in the top foot of water?). Properly designed venturi skimmers are tall to maximize air contact time, and require pumps that can handle backpressure.

Below are some pros and cons of venturi vs. CC skimmers. Some people will debate some of the statements.

Venturi skimmers, due to the large water pump needed, have a higher initial purchase price than CC units for the same amount of skimming.

The operational cost of a venturi unit is basically just the electricity bill. A CC unit must sum in electricity consumption for the water pump and air pump (usually small) plus air stone and diaphragm replacement. Which one is more cost effective for you depends upon which equipment you had to buy to run the skimmer properly, your electricity rate and how often air stones need to be replaced. Most people find CC skimmers less expensive to both purchase and operate for the same amount of skimming. Venturi skimmers are less cumbersome in appearance and in operation. They are usually smaller and quieter. They are on the whole more hassle free. The powerful pump required for venturi skimmers may, however, add considerable heat to the water.

One general note on water pumps: The amount of heat added to the water varies by brand, design, usage, and placement. Basically, the more efficient the pump (gallons delivered at a given pressure for a given power usage), the cooler it will run. Restricting the output of the pump will generally increase the water temperature. (Never restrict the intake of a centrifugal pump!) Obviously, an air cooled pump will increase your tank temperature less than a submersible (and therefore tank water cooled) pump will.

Some debate about its usage. Most use it at least a few days a month, some continuously. Many brands have problems with phosphate leaching.

X-Nitrate, X-Phosphate, Polyfilters, Chemi-pure, etc. - probably not needed in established, balanced reef aquaria. A prominent manufacturer of these materials was either unwilling or unable to supply capacities for removing the named compounds from seawater. May cause adverse reactions in some inverts.

This is an area of interest currently being debated. Originally the FAQ stated:

Good idea to pre-filter skimmer water. Floss works fine and is cheap and disposable. Sponges work well, but require cleaning twice a week or so. Natural sponges with a medium fine or fine pore size are recommended. Some people don't use mechanical filtration, allowing detritus to settle in places for removal by siphoning. Some of these people make dedicated "settling tanks" to trap debris in a convenient place. Julian Sprung suggests not pre-filtering skimmer water as skimmers will remove particulates (rather than trapping them as a pre-filter would do). Spotte confirms this and terms this filtering mechanismas 'froth floatation'.

Many members of the group of authors do not use mechanical filtration. They believe that such systems filter out the plankton that is used as food by many marine organisms. Some members use "live sand" setups, with detrivores. Others routinely siphon accumulated detritus.

Use of a mechanical filter for short periods may help when attempting to resolve specific problems, such as a hair algae outbreak.

Not appropriate for a Reef Tank. Although they will work for 6 months or so, eventually detritus buildup will cause a nitrate problem. Long term, it's virtually impossible to keep nitrates below about 40 ppm NO3- which is way too high for corals.

An attempt to solve the detritus buildup problem associated with normal flow UGFs. It's a good idea that doesn't work well in practice. This system has problems with uneven water flow due to channeling within the bottom gravel.

Also known as Wet/Dry Filters. An improvement over UGF and RUGF filters. Nitrates can be kept low (say, around 5 ppm) with adequate water changes. It does not seem to be possible to keep nitrates very low (less than 1 ppm) if a trickle filter is the sole biological filtration. Those that report less than 1 ppm normally have adequate live rock, and find that their Nitrates remain low even (and often get lower) when they remove all the bio-material from their trickle filters (turning them into plain sumps, useful for holding carbon and as a water reservoir).

Summary: the jury is still out. May help, may hurt, not currently recommended, especially as the sole filter. The topic is controversial. Below is some discussion about it.

In most healthy natural communities, particularly coral reefs, dissolved nutrients are scarce. In aquaria, by contrast, nutrients in the form of dissolved inorganic nitrogen, or DIN, (a collective term for ammonia, nitrites, and nitrates) accumulate very rapidly as fish and other organisms excrete these wastes. The most basic problem in any aquarium is limiting the accumulation of DIN.

In reef aquaria, DIN is consumed by the community of organisms on the live rock. It is uncertain what relative contribution is made by bacteria as opposed to algaes, but it is certain that the live rock community as a whole can remove a substantial amount of DIN from a reef aquarium. In fact, it is quite possible to run a reef tank with no biological filtration (DIN consumption) other than that which takes place on the rock. This method is part of what is now known in the United States as the "Berlin school" of reefkeeping.

Other schools of thought utilize additional biological filtration in separate filters. Traditional reef tanks supplement the filtration provided by the reef (often not acknowledging the role of the reef itself) with bacteria-based trickle filters. Many readers probably learned this technique first, as it has been the dominant method in the United States amateur hobby for some time. Yet another approach uses algaes, which are also capable of utilizing inorganic nitrogen directly. An algae filter, or algal scrubber as it is usually called, is simply a biological filter which utilizes a colony of algae rather than bacteria as consumers of inorganic nitrogen.

Algal scrubbers are not new; they are discussed in Martin Moe's (1989) excellent _Marine Aquarium Reference: Systems and Invertebrates, for example. However, algae filters have been regarded in the past as too bulky and inefficient to be the sole filter for a aquarium. The recent surge of interest in algal scrubbers seems to have been generated by Adey and Loveland's book _Dynamic Aquaria_ (1991). They discuss both techniques which allow an algal scrubber to be compact and efficient and also a number of arguments as to why they are preferable to other filtration methods.

One reason to use an algal scrubber according to Adey and Loveland is that it mirrors the way DIN is cycled in nature. They claim that perhaps 70-90% of the DIN in reef communities is consumed by algae, rather than by bacteria. The two methods produce rather different water chemistry; for example, algae are net producers of oxygen and remove carbon dioxide, while a bacterial filter consumes oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. They argue that it should be easier to maintain the type of water chemistry found over a natural reef by relying on an algal scrubber.

Also, algae remove the nitrogen from the water in order to build tissue, while filter bacteria simply put it into a less toxic form. The excess nitrogen can be removed completely by periodic algae harvests, while dissolved nitrogen in the form of nitrate is not as easy to remove. Adey and Loveland claim that their methods can bring levels of DIN down to a few hundredths of a ppm, far below (in their opinion) the levels reachable with other methods. A related argument in favor of algal scrubbers is that stability in natural ecosystems seems to come from locking up nutrients in biomass, not in allowing it to be free in the environment. An algal scrubber does precisely this, while a bacterial filter converts it to free nitrate dissolved in the water. A final reason to use an algal scrubber according to Adey and Loveland is that many other kinds of filtration (including protein skimmers) remove plankton from the water. An algal filter naturally does not do this, and can actually provide a refuge for some forms of plankton. The importance of this effect is, however, a matter of some debate.

As compelling as some find the above arguments in theory, there seem to be serious problems with algal scrubbing in practice. Many attempts by public aquaria at implementing reef tanks using only algal scrubbing have been failures. In particular, it seems difficult to find successful long term success with Scleractinia (stony corals) in such tanks, and those success stories which can be found are quite difficult to verify and often contradicted by others.

Various public and private aquaria have used algae scrubber filters on their reef aquaria, with disastrous results. The microcosm at the Smithsonian Institution has yet to keep scleractinia alive for more than a year. While Dr. Adey has stated how well corals grow in this system, those viewing the system have failed to find these corals. In an interview with Jill Johnson, one of the techs responsible for the Smithsonian tank, she stated to Frank M. Greco that frequent collecting trips were needed to keep the system stocked with live scleractinia.

The Pittsburgh AquaZoo also has a "reef" tank based on Dr. Adey's algal scrubbers. This tank is nothing more than a pile of rocks covered with filimentous green algae, and the water is QUITE yellow (as is the Smithsonian tank) from the presence of dissolved organics (ORP readings have been around 165). As with the Smithsonian tank, scleractinia do not survive longer than a few months. The same applies to soft corals as well. When I (Frank M. Greco) saw this tank on May 3, 1993, there were NO living corals to be found even though a collecting trip to Belize was made several months earlier and 81 pieces of living scleractinia were brought back. There were, however, two piles of dead Atlantic scleractinia: one right behind the tank and the other in the greenhouse housing the algal scrubbers.

The Carnegie Science Museum (Pittsburgh, PA) also uses an algal scrubber system, but with significant modifications. This tank looks the best of the three. There are several species of hardy Scleractinia and soft corals that are doing quite well. The water is clear (a bit cloudy). The major differences between this system and the other two is the use of carbon, a small, barely functioning algal scrubber, about 1000 lbs. of excellent quality live rock (Florida), water changes, and the addition of Sr and Ca.

The last system I know of that uses an algal scrubber is the Great Barrier Reef Microcosm in Townsville, Australia. As of this writing, the system is not maintaining live Scleractinia, and frequent collecting trips are needed in order to replenish the exhibit. It should also be noted here that while Dr. Adey has claimed in his book Dynamic Aquaria that corals have spawned in this system, what he doesn't mention is that the corals which spawned were collected only months before the known spawning season. From these few examples, it should be clear that algal scrubbers are NOT to be used in systems containing live scleractinia.

Possible reasons why algal scrubbers seem to fall short center around the observation that it seems difficult to control hair algae growth in scrubbed aquaria. Hobbyists have for many years seen their stony corals slowly pushed back off of their skeleton and killed by encroaching algaes, and much effort in the hobby has been devoted to controlling this growth. Only with strict control of algaes does coral survival seem possible. Most or all reefs with algal scrubbers seem to have heavy algal growth in the tank as well, which the experience of the hobby suggests is incompatible with stony coral survival.

The main method used by hobbyists to restrict algal growth is to reduce nutrient availability; in fact, the claim that other methods cannot reach the same low levels of DIN achieved by algal scrubbing is probably not true. Advanced hobbyists are beginning to use better tests, such as HACH's low level nitrate test, and are finding that they can achieve nitrate levels below 0.02 ppm. Berlin methods seem particularly able to reach these levels, which are comparable to that on natural coral reefs.
If low nutrient levels can be achieved by both methods, then why is algal growth a much greater problem with scrubber methods? The answer is not known, but there are two factors which probably contribute.

First, the discussion so far has mentioned only inorganic nitrogen. Algaes seem to release much of the inorganic nitrogen which they take up in the form of dissolved organic compounds (DON), which can also be later utilized by algaes. The very low levels of DIN measured in scrubbed tanks may mask the very high levels of DON which persist, providing nutrients for strong algal growth. This is borne out by many reports that the water in scrubbed tanks often has a pronounced yellow cast, characteristic of dissolved organic compounds. Since the water over natural reefs is very low in DON, high levels may be directly harmful to many corals, in addition to promoting uncontrolled algal growth.

Another possible effect of algal scrubbing is more subtle. Algal growth is never completely halted in any marine tank, merely reduced to the point where macro- and micrograzers can keep them in close check. The net rate of new growth depends not only on the availability of nutrients, but also on the amount of existing algal growth releasing free-floating cells into the water to colonize new sites. Even if the rate of growth of individual algal colonies is equal, a scrubbed tank has a growth of algae in the scrubber much larger than a reef tank with little algal growth anywhere in the system. This possibility suggests that the presence of the scrubber itself and not merely high levels of DON is an obstacle to the successful long-term maintenance of stony corals.

The weight of evidence at this point seems to be against the use of algal scrubbing in reef tanks, and the method should be considered to be highly experimental. Beginners particularly are advised to avoid this technique until they have considerably more experience with reefkeeping. The advanced aquarist may well wish to experiment with this interesting and controversial method, but it would be unwise to risk the lives of an entire reef tank full of coral. Such experiments should progress slowly, beginning with the most hardy of inhabitants. Many of the objections center on stony coral survival, and it is possible that scrubbed tanks with fish and hardy invertebrates may do quite well.

Of relatively recent interest in the hobby is the use of "live sand". Live sand consist of small grain (0.5mm-1.0mm) coral sand that is populated with crustaceans and bacteria. It is normally used at a rate of 10lbs per square foot of bottom area - which yields about a 1" deep covering. Variations from 1/8" to 3"s of covering have been reported.

If you decide to have a live sand substrate bottom, you should include several creatures that will turn-over, or otherwise, move the sand around. Recommendations include: Sea Cucumbers, Brittle Starfish, Serpant Starfish, Golden Headed Sleeper Gobies, Yellow Jawfish, Watchman Gobies, and other detrivoirs. A mix of the above is recommended, since each creature moves the sand around differently.

Live sand has a reputation of eliminating the final traces of nitrates in otherwise well run tanks. It also provides an environment for additional bio-diversity in the tank. Additionally, some feel that the chemical balance and stability of a tank's water is improved when live sand is present.

Note that live sand usage should still be considered experimental. Usage is dependent upon have the sand sifted and otherwise moved around to prevent detritus from accumulating. Many people have reported problems keeping their turn-over creatures alive for long periods of time. Some have not seen the reported nitrate reductions. Keep in mind that many reef tanks have operated for years without a substrate and have no detectable nitrate concentrations.

A rough "rule of thumb" is 4 Watts/gallon with successful tanks using from 1.5 - 6 Watts/gallon.

Fluorescent fine (some prefer) for shallow (<20") tanks. Use mix of bulbs (50-50, 03s, etc.)

Metal Halide (MH) required for deeper tanks.

Mercury Vapor, Halogen, HPS, etc. - avoid, wrong spectral output
.

For most aquarium lighting applications, the bottom line is getting the needed intensity and spectrum of light at the lowest cost while remaining within aesthetic limits.

A lighting analysis is now presented. Everyone has their own sets of numbers they would plug in here, for now lets assume the following for comparison. Many will debate specifics found below. Feel free to substitute your own numbers, but the methodology is sound.

NO lumens per lamp = 2600 (Phillips F40D daylight, initial)
NO watts per lamp = 40 (ditto)
NO cost per lamp = ~$20 (from memory, DLS actinic day)

VHO lumens per lamp= 5940 (Phillips F48T12/D/VHO daylight, initial)
VHO watts per lamp = 110 (ditto)
VHO cost per lamp = ~$30 (ditto)

MH lumens per lamp = 36000 (Philips MH400/U, initial)
MH watts per lamp = 400 (ditto)
MH cost per lamp = ~$70 (from memory, Venture 5200K)

operate lamps 12 hours/day
replace lamps once per year
electricity cost = $.09 / KWH (your mileage may vary)

Annual cost per lumen:

cost = ( cost-per-lamp / lumens-per-lamp )
+ ( watts-per-lamp / lumens-per-lamp ) * 12 * 365 * .09 / 1000

NO cost = .0077 + .0061 = .0138 dollars per year per lumen
VHO cost = .0051 + .0073 = .0124 dollars per year per lumen
MH cost = .0019 + .0044 = .0063 dollars per year per lumen

Basically, in fluorescents, the VHO lamps give a higher operating cost but a lower replacement cost for the same total amount of light. But it's close, and you should plug in your own numbers to see what's best for you. If you replace lamps more frequently then VHO is better, if you pay more for power, NO is better. There is a greater variety of lamps available for NO than VHO. OTOH, it seems that NO lamps can be operated at VHO power levels, with a somewhat shortened lifetime (the higher replacement frequency is offset by lower lamp cost), so this may not be an issue.

The initial installation cost (basically the ballast cost) is higher for VHO, even in terms of per-lumen, but this is a pretty small part of the total cost of the lighting system over the years.

NO requires more lamps for a given total light intensity, so you may not be able to fit enough NO bulbs in your hood if you need a lot of light.

MH seems to be a winner in both replacement and operating costs, but there are a couple of caveats. The math ignores the effect of the ballasts on power consumption, whereas I've measured fluorescent power consumption as less than the lamp wattage (even on conventional transformer ballasts) and MH power consumption as slightly higher than the lamp wattage. The other caveat is just the EXTREMELY limited choice of spectrums for MH, which is why few people use MH without any fluorescent.

MH vs fluorescent also gets into the aesthetic and biological considerations. Water surface ripples causing light ripples in the aquarium and room are pronounced with MH lighting. Many people appreciate this effect. Some (e.g. Julian Sprung) feel the variation in light intensity is actually important for some photosynthetic organisms. Many people are under the impression MH runs hot, whereas fluorescent doesn't. In reality, the efficiencies are similar, with MH producing slightly LESS heat than the equivalent fluorescent. The difference is MH dumps all the heat in a small space so the local temperature rise is greater. But if you want to try to get rid of the heat it's actually easier to do it if the heat is concentrated in one spot, since its easier to get rid of a small amount of very hot air than a very large amount of warm air.

A separate issue, so far only applicable to fluorescent, is the selection of a conventional ballast vs an electronic one. There is no doubt the electronic ones are more expensive to purchase, but the savings in electricity offset the high initial cost in a year or so. Also, if heat production is an issue, the electronic ballasts are to be favored. The Icecap VHO electronic ballast is widely advertised, however its advertised claims are also frequently questioned. Advance makes a series of NO electronic ballasts.

There are yet two more issues, for which there are a lot of questions and too few answers. Specifically, the short term flicker in light intensity, and radiated electromagnetic fields. Fluorescent lamps on conventional ballasts flicker at 120 Hz, which is above the human visual response, so we don't see it (actually, the flicker is both in intensity and spectrum). But that doesn't mean other creatures can't see it, or whether they benefit or are disadvantaged by it. Electronic ballasts cause flicker at ~30 KHz; it is seriously doubtful that any creature can detect this, so it would appear constant.

The flicker doesn't have to be visible to have an effect: it causes any movement to appear strobed, and this may affect the feeding efficiency of visual hunters.

The fields issue is even more obscure. At least many cartilaginous fish (sharks, rays, etc) are known to be extremely sensitive to electric fields, and many crustaceans are sensitive to magnetic fields (crabs with pieces of magnetite in internal sensory organs). Fluorescent lamps, with the large area they cover, tend to radiate (using the term pretty loosely) fairly strongly, but MH, and the wiring, and the ballasts can radiate too. It's unknown on how significant this could be in an aquarium (but its known sharks preferentially attack undersea cables because of the fields, so there is at least indirect evidence its an issue worth some thought).

BTW, a grounding device reduces the level of induced voltages in the tank, but this is achieved at the expense of increased induced current, so its effect (if any) may depend on the species. Also, note if you have a titanium coil chiller on the tank, it is probably already grounded through the chiller, and an additional ground may in fact increase the electric current. This should not be an issue with epoxy or ceramic coated chiller coils.

FILE|WATTS|MANUFACTURER|DESCRIPTION      |HOURS      |TYPE      |

T1   400   IWASAKI      6500K                          M/H

T2    20   LIGHTSOURCE  UVB                            FL

T3    20   LIGHTSOURCE  UVB WITH FILTER                FL

T4   400   VENTURE      4000K                          M/H

T5   400   VENTURE      4000K WITH FILTER              M/H

T6   400   SYLVANIA     4000K             2400 HOURS   M/H

T7    60   CHROMALUX                                   TUNGSTEN

T8    40   CORALIFE     50/50                          FL

T9    40   ACTINIC SUN                                 FL

T10   40   PHILLIPS     ACTINIC 03        3650 HOURS   FL

T11   40   PHILLIPS     ACTINIC 03                     FL

T12   40   RAINBOW      PRIMETINIC                     FL

T13   40   RAINBOW      FLORA_GLOW                     FL

T14   40   RAINBOW      BIO_LUME                       FL

T15   40   TRITON                         3650 HOURS   FL

T16   40   DURALIFE     POWER TWIST                    FL

T17   40   HAMILTON     SUPER ACTINIC     3650 HOURS   FL

T18   40   PKILLIPS     ULTRALUME         3650 HOURS   FL

T19   40   PERFECTO     PERFECTALIGHT                  FL

T20   40   SYLVANIA     350EL BLACKLIGHT  3650 HOURS   FL

T21   40   SYLVANIA     350EL BLACKLIGHT               FL



nm      T1      T2      T3      T4      T5      T6      T7      T8      T9

280             0       0                                               

290             0.00369 0                                               

300             0.01136 0                                               

310             0.0173  0                                               

320             0.01326 0                                               

330             0.00725 0                                               

340             0.00366 0                                               

350     0.00928 0.00126 0       0.00173 0       0.01344 0.00156 0       0

360     0.01185 0.00155 0       0.03944 0       0.07642 0.00071 0.00012 0.00011

370     0.02    0.00199 0       0.03428 0       0.07363 0.00166 0.00115 0.00104

380     0.03036 0.0007  0       0.0043  0       0.03063 0.00361 0.00086 0.00075

390     0.0446  0.00084 0       0.01287 0       0.05199 0.00574 0.00422 0.00329

400     0.07903 0.00544 0.0014  0.07214 0.01949 0.14805 0.01098 0.02255 0.01686

410     0.08931 0.0058  0.00188 0.06103 0.02356 0.1331  0.01644 0.05968 0.04407

420     0.16201 0.00126 0.00076 0.01713 0.01747 0.06811 0.02291 0.08731 0.06047

430     0.09997 0.01352 0.01175 0.13073 0.13383 0.2202  0.02654 0.09023 0.06469

440     0.08765 0.02331 0.02023 0.1601  0.1598  0.2264  0.03179 0.0736  0.05465

450     0.07976 0.00053 0.00041 0.01077 0.01184 0.04449 0.03795 0.02631 0.02099

460     0.12665 0.00078 0.00072 0.00687 0.00716 0.03796 0.04864 0.01588 0.01347

470     0.15064 0.00074 0.00069 0.01622 0.02078 0.07935 0.06293 0.01061 0.00931

480     0.16282 0.00071 0.00066 0.01501 0.01751 0.07474 0.08342 0.01361 0.0122

490     0.262   0.00081 0.00075 0.01746 0.01798 0.07031 0.10565 0.02889 0.02518

500     0.1875  0.00074 0.00069 0.01715 0.01926 0.07363 0.11878 0.01326 0.01125

510     0.1742                  0.03241 0.03973 0.12924 0.11684 0.00561 0.00456

520     0.1746                  0.01067 0.01085 0.06063 0.11877 0.00424 0.00337

530     0.1903                  0.01495 0.01622 0.06525 0.11566 0.00658 0.00568

540     0.2163                  0.2472  0.2453  0.3389  0.17133 0.0945  0.08678

550     0.2249                  0.3589  0.3569  0.4931  0.2222  0.10093 0.08811

560     0.1535                  0.01939 0.02075 0.07519 0.2276  0.00777 0.00829

570     0.1721                  0.15115 0.15653 0.2859  0.11034 0.00485 0.00444

580     0.2015                  0.4783  0.47    0.6035  0.04333 0.02203 0.0205

590     0.11089                 0.1499  0.10326 0.4279  0.04889 0.02291 0.02103

600     0.13418                 0.015   0.01253 0.07882 0.15686 0.01332 0.01218

610     0.12794                 0.01226 0.01103 0.0517  0.2926  0.07374 0.06906

620     0.14258                 0.02842 0.0302  0.10766 0.3906  0.04382 0.03969

630     0.13358                 0.03349 0.03673 0.10084 0.4227  0.02397 0.02217

640     0.11311                 0.014   0.01398 0.05127 0.4511  0.00603 0.00571

650     0.09402                 0.01115 0.01077 0.04064 0.4742  0.00692 0.00652

660     0.10513                 0.01143 0.01088 0.04971 0.4899  0.00584 0.00544

670     0.085                   0.01551 0.01315 0.08427 0.4922  0.00403 0.00386

680     0.08657                 0.01111 0.01079 0.03203 0.4808  0.0037  0.00358

690     0.09202                 0.01929 0.01898 0.03834 0.4944  0.00411 0.00377

700     0.08359                 0.00975 0.01033 0.03056 0.5355  0.00286 0.00277

710     0.04801                 0.01305 0.01273 0.02949 0.5522  0.00911 0.00917

720     0.05045                 0.01045 0.01025 0.03059 0.5485  0.00149 0.0014

730     0.04745                 0.00957 0.00941 0.0182  0.4476  0.00042 0.0004

740     0.04609                 0.00985 0.00964 0.02177 0.2395  0.00041 0.00039

750     0.04023                 0.00983 0.00959 0.01954 0.2498  0.00037 0.00035



nm      T10     T11     T12     T13     T14     T15     T16     T17     T18

350     0       0       0.0001  0       0       0       0       0       0.00011

360     0       0       0.00167 0       0       0       0.00144 0       0.00147

370     0       0.00016 0.00087 0.00119 0.00126 0.00145 0.00196 0       0.00133

380     0.00011 0.0007  0.00063 0.00027 0.00017 0.00023 0.00145 0.00011 0.0007

390     0.00403 0.00563 0.00399 0.00033 0.00012 0.00018 0.0021  0.00155 0.00066

400     0.01468 0.0379  0.02569 0.00377 0.00299 0.0037  0.00745 0.02094 0.00546

410     0.04403 0.12285 0.07521 0.00446 0.00432 0.00611 0.00952 0.08984 0.0083

420     0.06681 0.1955  0.12078 0.00138 0.00651 0.00983 0.0078  0.15751 0.00904

430     0.06231 0.1714  0.13584 0.01281 0.03371 0.03597 0.02406 0.14212 0.03191

440     0.04237 0.10573 0.1221  0.0229  0.0599  0.05814 0.03307 0.08825 0.04797

450     0.01287 0.03535 0.05784 0.00225 0.04818 0.04703 0.0128  0.03013 0.02376

460     0.00567 0.01538 0.03935 0.00271 0.04462 0.05381 0.01496 0.01326 0.02429

470     0.00268 0.00698 0.02608 0.00332 0.03433 0.0541  0.01834 0.0061  0.02294

480     0.00125 0.00319 0.02679 0.00396 0.02981 0.05097 0.02108 0.00287 0.03173

490     0.00082 0.00195 0.05095 0.00486 0.03909 0.04972 0.02354 0.00178 0.05773

500     0.00062 0.00051 0.02319 0.00537 0.02092 0.03006 0.02579 0.00056 0.02643

510     0.00037 0.00073 0.00728 0.00672 0.01013 0.01802 0.02974 0.00079 0.01024

520     0.0003  0.00056 0.00496 0.00985 0.00732 0.01111 0.03445 0.00064 0.0078

530     0.00027 0.00049 0.00645 0.016   0.00668 0.01075 0.03592 0.00056 0.013

540     0.00623 0.01053 0.13192 0.03586 0.07958 0.0697  0.04315 0.00846 0.1921

550     0.01079 0.0185  0.1251  0.05488 0.07655 0.06983 0.04723 0.01463 0.1743

560     0.00028 0.00038 0.01025 0.04627 0.00731 0.0088  0.02902 0.00035 0.02394

570     0.00061 0.00085 0.00549 0.05201 0.00444 0.00586 0.02876 0.00069 0.01534

580     0.00314 0.00569 0.03686 0.0556  0.02172 0.0227  0.032   0.00446 0.04439

590     0.00039 0.00047 0.03892 0.04418 0.01716 0.02913 0.02544 0.00044 0.04907

600     0.00013 0.00051 0.01518 0.04409 0.00375 0.02508 0.0284  0.00036 0.03261

610     0.00126 0.00136 0.09569 0.04722 0.01159 0.16014 0.03433 0.00087 0.14292

620     0.0009  0.0015  0.06356 0.05247 0.04658 0.07106 0.03533 0.0013  0.08503

630     0.00057 0.00087 0.0269  0.06004 0.06313 0.03852 0.03461 0.00084 0.04806

640     0.0003  0.0006  0.00674 0.05213 0.05384 0.0087  0.03259 0.00043 0.01323

650     0.00025 0.00047 0.00797 0.07652 0.1192  0.01039 0.0305  0.00036 0.01485

660     0.00026 0.00049 0.00564 0.10016 0.1775  0.00799 0.02782 0.00039 0.01222

670     0.00023 0.00043 0.00554 0.04559 0.06493 0.00461 0.02474 0.00035 0.00851

680     0.0002  0.00039 0.00499 0.02232 0.01908 0.00396 0.02155 0.00031 0.00761

690     0.00032 0.00056 0.00425 0.01701 0.00976 0.00639 0.01861 0.00047 0.00787

700     0.00022 0.00041 0.00348 0.01193 0.00434 0.00551 0.01536 0.00032 0.00583

710     0.00041 0.00077 0.01145 0.00964 0.00302 0.01905 0.01322 0.0006  0.01719

720     0.00022 0.00049 0.00167 0.00712 0.0013  0.00286 0.01038 0.00034 0.00305

730     0       0.00013 0.00044 0.00546 0.00072 0.00068 0.00827 0       0.00054

740     0       0.00012 0.00045 0.0044  0.00059 0.00075 0.00685 0       0.00098

750     0       0.00013 0.0004  0.00352 0.00045 0.00071 0.00559 0       0.00093



nm      T19     T20     T21                                             

300                     0                                               

310                     0.01441                                         

320                     0.00473

330                     0.01484

340                     0.03041

350     0       0.01513 0.02693

360     0.0001  0.01831 0.03403

370     0.00144 0.01491 0.02582

380     0.00097 0.00948 0.01617

390     0.00474 0.0052  0.00903

400     0.00806 0.00633 0.00942

410     0.01157 0.00532 0.00778

420     0.01243 0.00154 0.00258

430     0.02928 0.01093 0.01555

440     0.0403  0.01854 0.02698

450     0.0223  0.00053 0.00163

460     0.0258  0.00069 0.00137

470     0.02929 0.00061 0.00124

480     0.03084 0.00057 0.00072

490     0.03039 0.00076 0.00119

500     0.02779 0.00063 0.00101

510     0.02431 0.00037 0.0007

520     0.02064 0.00029 0.00056

530     0.01756 0.00028 0.00048

540     0.02217 0.00924 0.00974

550     0.02535 0.01594 0.01769

560     0.00816 0.00029 0.00033

570     0.00725 0.00062 0.00081

580     0.0119  0.00497 0.00639

590     0.00888 0.00044 0.00042

600     0.00953 0.00035 0.00037

610     0.05257 0.00111 0.00114

620     0.03046 0.00129 0.00145

630     0.03244 0.00082 0.00089

640     0.02281 0.00047 0.00047

650     0.04607 0.00035 0.00037

660     0.06831 0.00039 0.00038

670     0.02469 0.00033 0.00034

680     0.00813 0.0003  0.0003

690     0.00567 0.00046 0.00047

700     0.00362 0.00031 0.00032

710     0.0071  0.00062 

720     0.00146 0.00033 

730     0.00059 0       

740     0.00052 0       

750     0.00045 0

ALL DATA CONTAINED WITHIN IS COPTRIGHT 1994 BY FRANK M. GRECO (baldbruce@aol.com) AND TO BE USED ONLY WITH PERMISSION OF ONE OR BOTH OF THESE PEOPLE.

Here is a rough estimate of what setting up a reef tank may cost. Two cases are included: a 20g micro-reef and a 70g mini-reef. The estimates show the min and max for most of the common pieces of equipment. The estimates assume a standard type of filtration that is popular today. If a different setup is used, the price could be more or less. The equipment includes a tank with some sort of siphon/drain to a sump and then a return pump back to the tank. A protein skimmer is installed in the sump. This setup is similar to a typical wet/dry trickle filter except there is no trickle section with media. This allows the use of simpler, less expensive sump although a commercial W/D without media could be used. A trickle media could be utilized at greater cost although many reefkeepers think it is unnecessary. Keep in mind that prices sometimes vary geographically. Also, availability may vary. For example, reasonable Florida live rock may soon no longer be available (at least not for $2-4/lb)
.

The estimates include the cost of the initial set-up. There is also a section on ongoing costs. The ongoing cost will vary greatly, especially considering that you will stock your tank gradually. Keep in mind that you always end up spending more than you think you will. If you set up a reef, you will end up stopping at the hardware store and/or aquarium store for timers, extensions cords, GFIs (a must!), buckets, hoses, and books, don't for forget books. You should read a few books on reefkeeping before even planning your setup. An extra hundred bucks or three is going to leak out of your wallet whether you plan on it or not. Another factor is that more advanced equipment may translate into less or easier maintenance. You should keep in mind that if you go with inferior equipment, maintaining the tank will be more work. More expense will mean more automated equipment and less work. Also, some varieties of inverts require more exacting condition, more light, etc. Plan your purchases so that the stock you buy has a chance of surviving with the equipment you are using. If you have a bare minimum system, stick hardy items like soft-corals, polyps, mushrooms, etc.

The minimum included is close to rock-bottom as far as an acceptable systems goes. It assumes that you are DIYing much of the equipment as cheaply as possible. The maximum in the estimate is in some areas a little extravagant but not unreasonable. A good system that is not extravagant could be put together for somewhere in between the two extremes. Perhaps, for 1.25 to 2 times the minimum, you would have a very nice system. Some areas are easier to cut-corners on than others and some of the initial cost may be incremental, like buying test kits as needed. Also, you may have some of the equipment already from previous set-ups or be buying it used. Seek out the advice of an experienced reefkeeper then planning and pricing your system.

MicroReef (20g)

Tank            $  20/ 140      Glass/

                                Acrylic.

Stand               0/ 250      Sturdy piece of furniture/

                                Fancy acrylic stand.

Lights            100/ 300      DIY 60W fluorescent/

                                70W or 150W MH hood or pendant.

Main Pump          20/  60      Large powerhead/

                                Hobby pump.

Sump               10/ 120      A plastic storage container from the

                                hardware store / A small commercial W/D

                                without media.  (A nice DIY acrylic

                                sump can be built for about $40.)

Skimmer            60/ 220      DIY skimmer, power head, air pump/

                                Small commercial venturi unit with

                                integral pump.          

Plumbing           30/ 100      DIY overflow and misc pipes, etc/

                                Drilled tank or commercial overflow box

                                plus misc pipes, etc.

Live-Rock         140/ 400      35lb case of Fla rock plus shipping/

                                30lbs of Pacific rock plus shipping.

Water Treatment   100/ 600      DIY mixed-bed DI with carbon prefilter/

                                TFC RO unit with DI postfilter and 

                                automated top-off.

Test Kits         100/ 500      A SW combo kit plus and Alk and Ca test/

                                Most of the Lamotte and/or Hach kits

                                you think you might need.

Salt               10/  20      One 50g bag, price varies.

Accessories        20/ 200      There are a variety of gadgets you could

                                get.  You might want to start with a

                                net or two and maybe a pair of tongs.

                 ---- ----

Setup Total     $ 610 2910

MicroReef (70g)

        

Tank            $ 140/ 350      Glass/

                                Acrylic.

Stand             100/ 500      Cheap wood or iron stand/ 

p                               Fancy acrylic stand.

Lights            200/ 600      DIY 160W fluorescent/

                                2x150-175 MH hood (possibly with Actinics).

Main Pump          80/ 140      400-600gph, price varies with brand.

Sump               10/ 200      A plastic storage container from the

                                hardware store / a commercial W/D

                                without media.  A nice DIY acrylic

                                sump can be built for about $50.

Skimmer            80/ 450      A DIY skimmer,powerhead,air pump/

                                A large commercial venturi unit

                                with a large pump driving it.

Plumbing           50/ 150      DIY overflow and misc pipes, etc/

                                Drilled tank or commercial overflow box

                                plus misc pipes, etc.

Live-Rock         460/1200      140lbs Fla rock plus shipping/

                                110lbs Pacific rock plus shipping.

Water Treatment   100/ 600      DIY mixed-bed DI with carbon prefilter/

                                TFC RO unit with mixed-bed DI

                                postfilter and automated top-off.

Test Kits         100/ 500      A SW combo kit plus and Alk and Ca test/

                                Most of the Lamotte and/or Hach kits

                                you think you might need.

Salt               20/  40      Two 50g bags, price varies.

Accessories        40/ 500      There are a variety of gadgets you could

                                get.  You might want to start with a

                                net or two and maybe a pair of tongs.

                                You could get wave-makers, circulation

                                pumps and lots of other do-dads.

Chiller             0/ 600      Don't use a chiller, live somewhere cool,

                                keep the tank in the basement, or an

                                adequately air-conditioned room/

                                A commercial chiller.

                 ---- ----

Setup-Total      1380 5830

Ongoing Costs

Additives- Most reefkeepers believe that some additives are necessary.

        At minimum, a buffer compound is needed to maintain the alkalinity.

        Also, some Calcium supplement such as Kalkwasser or Cacl2 should

        be used.  A few trace additives like Strontium and Iodine/Iodide

        should also be added.  The initial supply of these products will

        be around $50.  The ongoing rate will vary depending on the size

        of the tank.



Water Purifier- If you go with a DI system, you will have to replace

        and/or recharge resin.  An RO system will require periodic

        replacement of the membrane.  In the long run, maintenance

        of the RO is likely cheaper.



Test Kits Reagents- You will need replace reagents for the tests kits.

        Also, the minimum given above is may not be adequate.  The

        typical SW combo kits are not of low enough range for reef work.

        They will only be of use during the first few weeks of 

        cycling/curing.  That estimate assume that you will acquire

        the better tests over time or have access to someone else's

        expensive tests should you need to diagnose a problem.



Electricity- You will need it to run the pumps and lights.  It won't be

        insignificant.  Electric costs vary.  Check the KW cost

        on your electric bill.  Add up wattage of all the equipment you 

        are using, pumps 24hrs/day, lights 12hrs/day.  Calculate what

        the electricity will cost.  Don't forget cooling, in many areas, 

        you will need either a chiller or will have to air-condition the 

        room where the reef is kept.  The lights will generate heat.  At 

        minimum, your AC bill will also go up accordingly.  Electricity 

        mini-reef system could easily be a couple hundred bucks a year.



Water-  In some areas, water is expensive.  RO units waste several times 

        what they produce in water.  This could add a little more expense.

Lights- Fluorescent tubes and MH bulbs wear out. Fluorescent tubes are usually okay for nine months to a year before spectrum shifts and/output reduced significantly. Some tubes, like actinics, may need replacement as frequently as every six months. Replacement MH bulbs is recommended about every one to two years (depending upon spectral shift and output degradation). Add up the cost of your tubes and figure in the replacement cost based on the estimated lifetime. Stocking- This can really vary. You probably shouldn't have more than a couple fish in the micro-reef and not more than a handful in the mini-reef. The typical fish suitable for a reef will be from $10(small goby or blenny) to $30(small angel or tang). You could spend $300 on one purple tang though. Pieces of coral, decorative rocks, giant clams and other sessile inverts start at around $20 a piece and go to many hundreds a piece. Snails range from about $1/each to about $8/each and are recommended for controlling algae. Other motive inverts likes shrimp range from about $10 to $30. You probably should start with the snails as soon as the live rock is in the tank. You don't have to have any fish if you don't want any. You don't have to have inverts either although that is probably why you set up a reef tank. Just quality live-rock is very of nice to look at but sooner or later you will likely want something else in your tank. The invert stocking will be very incremental and should be. It is not heathly to add a lot of stock at once. You can spread you stocking over up to several years. You could spend anywhere from say $100 to $750 on the micro-reef and $200 to $10,000 on the mini-reef.

The following cross reference was originally provided by Steve Rader:

Bubble coral                     Plerogyra sinuosa            

Closed Brain coral               Favia sp, sometimes Diploria sp.

Clubbed Finger coral             Porites porites              

Colony anemonies                 Telia sp                     

Common Star coral                Montastrea annularis         

Cup coral                        Turbinaria peltata           

Dead brain coral                 Favia sp                     

Elegance coral                   Catalaphyllia jardinei (was plicata)        

Elephant Ear coral               Rhodactius sp                

Elkhorn coral                    Acropora palmata             

Fire coral                       Millepora alcicornis         

Fire coral                       Sinalaris sp                 

Flower Pot coral                 Goniopora sp                 

Flower coral                     Eusmilia fastigiata          

Frog's Spawn coral               Euphyllia cristata, E. glabrescens

                                 Euphyllia divisa (Veron)

Giant Mushroom polyps            Rhodactius sp                

Gorgonians                       Gorgonacea sp                

Grape coral                      Physogyra lichensteini       

Hammer coral                     Euphyllia ancora, E. fimbriata

Knobbed Brain coral              Diploria clivosa, D. strigosa

Labyrinthine Brain coral         Diploria labyrinthiformis    

Large Flower coral               Mussa angulosa               

Large Star coral                 Montastrea cavernosa         

Leather coral                    Sarcophyton sp               

Lettuce coral                    Agaricia agaricites, Turbinaria sp          

Mat anemonies                    Zoanthus pulchellus, other Z. sp          

Moon coral                       Galaxea fascicalaris         

Mushroom anemonies               Actinodiscus sp              

Mushroom coral                   Fungia actinoformis          

Mushroom polyps                  Actinodiscus sp, Rhodactius sp, Sarcophyton sp

Open Brain coral                 Trachyphyllia geofroyi       

Orange cup coral                 Balanophyllia elegans, Turbinaria sp        

Pilar coral                      Dendrogyra cylindrus         

Porous coral                     Porites astreoides           

Rose coral                       Manicina areolata            

Sea Mat anemonies                Ricordia sp                  

Small Bubble coral               Physosyra lichensteini       

Staghorn coral                   Acropora cervicornis         

Star polyps                      Clavularia sp                

Strawberry anemonies             Telia sp                     

Tooth coral                      Catalaphyllia jardinei (was plicata)        

Torch coral                      Euphyllia ancora, E. glabrescens (Veron)

Tree coral                       Sinularis sp                 

Waving Hand coral                Anthelia sp                  

Xenia coral                      Xenia sp                     



And going the other way...



 Acropora cervicornis           Staghorn coral                

 Acropora palmata               Elkhorn coral                 

 Actinodiscus sp                Mushroom anemonies            

 Actinodiscus sp                Mushroom polyps               

 Agaricia agaricites            Lettuce coral                 

 Anthelia sp                    Waving Hand coral             

 Balanophyllia elegans          Orange cup coral              

 Catalaphyllia jardinei         Elegance coral, Tooth coral

 Clavularia sp                  Star polyps                   

 Dendrogyra cylindrus           Pilar coral                   

 Diploria clivosa               Knobbed Brain coral           

 Diploria labyrinthiformis      Labyrinthine Brain coral      

 Diploria strigosa              Knobbed Brain coral           

 Euphyllia ancora               Hammer coral, Torch coral                  

 Euphyllia cristata             Frog's Spawn coral            

 Euphyllia divisa               Frog's Spawn coral (Veron)

 Euphyllia fimbriata            Hammer coral                  

 Euphyllia glabrescens          Torch coral (Veron), Frog's Spawn coral

 Eusmilia fastigiata            Flower coral                  

 Favia sp                       Closed Brain coral, Dead brain coral           

 

 Fungia actinoformis            Mushroom coral                

 Galaxea fascicalaris           Moon coral                    

 Goniopora sp                   Flower Pot coral              

 Gorgonacea sp                  Gorgonians                    

 Manicina areolata              Rose coral                    

 Millepora alcicornis           Fire coral                    

 Montastrea annularis           Common Star coral             

 Montastrea cavernosa           Large Star coral              

 Mussa angulosa                 Large Flower coral            

 Physogyra lichensteini         Grape coral, Small Bubble coral

 Plerogyra sinuosa              Bubble coral                  

 Porites astreoides             Porous coral                  

 Porites porites                Clubbed Finger coral          

 Rhodactius sp                  Elephant Ear coral, Giant Mushroom polyps

 Ricordia sp                    Sea Mat anemonies             

 Sarcophyton sp                 Leather coral, Mushroom polyps

 Sinularis sp                   Fire coral, Tree coral

 Tubastrea sp                   Orange Cup coral

 Turbinaria peltata             Cup coral                     

 Telia sp                       Colony anemonies, Strawberry anemonies

 Trachyphyllia geofroyi         Open Brain coral              

 Xenia sp                       Xenia coral                   

 Zoanthus pulchellus            Mat anemonies                 

 Zoanthus sp                    Mat anemonies

I've typed in a useful table from SeaScope (winter, '92) in which Michael Paletta discusses coral aggression in reef aquaria. It describes the two major aggressive mechanisms of corals: the release of terpenoid compounds and the use of sweeper tentacles or mesenteric filaments. I found it useful because it includes a majority of imported live corals.

The entries marked with a tilde are my additions--Telia anemonies are placed above open brain coral because I've observed them burn my red open brain coral. Both types of colonial zooanthid anemonies listed seem to release terpenoids that keep mushroom polyps at bay somewhat. Also, I've included other common names I know of in quotes.

          Relative Aggressiveness of Commonly Kept Reef Invertebrates

MOST AGGRESSIVE...

1)      Elegance Coral  (Catalaphyllia jardinei, "Tooth coral")

2)      Hammer Coral    (Euphyllia ancora, E. fimbriata, "Torch coral")

3)      Other Euphyllia (E. glabrescens, E. cristala., "Frog's spawn coral")

4)      Bubble Coral    (Plerogyra sinuosa)

5)      Grape Coral     (Physosyra lichensteini, "Small bubble coral")

6)      Mushroom Coral  (Fungia actinoformis)   

7)      Flower Pot Coral (Goniopora sp.)

~)      Telia Anemonies (Telia sp, "Strawberry anemonies; Colony anemonies")

        

8)      Open Brain Coral (Trachyphyllia geofroyi

9)      Cup Coral       (Taxbinaria peltata

10)     Moon Coral      (Galaxea fascicalaris

11)     Closed Brain Coral (Favia spead brain coral")

12)     Star Polyps     (Clavalaria sp.

13)     Leather Coral   (Sarccphyton sp

14)     Tree Coral      (Sinalaris spFire coral")

15)     Gorgoniana      (Gorgonacea sp.)        

16)     Waving Hand     (Anthelia sp.)

17)     Xenia           (Xenia sp.)

18)     Giant Mushrooms (Rhodactius sp., "Elephant ear coral")

~)      Sea Mat Anemonies (Zooanthus sp., "Sea mat rock")

~)      Ricordia Anemonies (Ricordia sp. "Sea mat rock")

19)     Mushroom Anemonies (inodiscus sp., "Mushroom polyps")

...LEAST AGGRESSIVE

Key to Stock detail

    Key    sp.  - generic species description.

           cdf  - captive difficulty

                   0-9   0=beginner,  5=experienced,  9=advanced

           fll  - florescent lighting (50% tri-color white and 50% actinic) 

                   0-9   0=1.5 watts/gal, 5=4.5 watts/gal, 9=7.5 watts/gal



                     Multiply [fll] values with applicable inefficient factors.

                          non-48" tubes  ((watts/gal) * 1.3)

                          HO tubes ((watts/gal) * 1.3)

                          VHO tubes ((watts/gal) * 1.7)

                          non-tricolor tubes ((watts/gal) * 1.3)





           dff  - distance from florescent   0-36 inches

           mhl  - metal halide lighting

                   0-9   0=1 watt/gal, 5=3 watts/gal, 9=5 watts/gal

           dfm  - distance from metal halide   0-36 inches

           wcu  - water current level

                   0-9   0=stagnant, 5=medium, 9=turbulent

           hac  - hair algae comptatability.

                   0-9   0=none, 5=some algae, 9=heavy algae

           fod  - food source

                      sym - symbiotic algae nutrients

                      mpl  - microplankton

                      zpl  -  zooplankton (baby artemia)

                      lfd  -  liquid coral foods



                      chf  - chunk frozen foods

           add  - additives required

                      str - strontium        iod  - iodine

                      cal - calcium          irn  - iron

                      vit - vitamins         mlb  - molybendium

                      ptm - potassium     

    note - This is not a listing of all known corals. Just those for which

              some data is known concerning captive requirements.



   Cnidaria [Anthozoa] 

    a SubClass Zoantharia [Hexacorillia]

       Order Scleractinia [Madreporaria] (true stony corals) ~2,000 species.

         Family  Poritidae

          Porites (pore)

              sp. - (xmas rocks) Encrusting growths. Extremelly small polyp.

                       Most are brown but can be green, blue, pink and purple.

                       Massive, branched or encrusting. 

                        cdf=6, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= >10

                        wcu=1-6, hac=0, fod=sym, add=cal/str

          Goniopora (flowerpot or daisy)

               Goniopora are similar to Alveopora, except that Goniopora

               have 24 tentacles on each polyp, and Alveopora have 12.

               lobata - (flowerpot)  Medium-polyp. Skeleton shapes are varied. 

                       Very difficult and rarely kept more then two years. 

                       Flower-like polyps extend out from base.

                        cdf=9, fll=5-9, dff= <20, mhl=1-7, dfm= <30

                        wcu=2-6, fod=sym

               stokesi - (flowerpot) Medium-polyp. Longer polyps than lobata 

                       (10-15cm). Polyps extend out very far. Brown, gray, 

                       green or blue. Skeleton is spherical or half spherical

                       in shape.

                        cdf=9, fll=5-9, dff= <20, mhl=1-7, dfm= <30

                        wcu=2-6, fod=sym

          Alveopora (flower)

               sp. -  Medium-polyp. Very similar to goniopora but polyp ten-

                       tacles are shorter. Brown or bluish. Stung by Euphyllia

                       and Plerogyra.  Alveopora has 12 tentacles on each

                       polyp while Gonipora have 24.

                        cdf=7, fll=5-9, dff= <20, mhl=1-7, dfm= <30

                        wcu=2-6, fod=sym/zpl



         Family Pocilloporidae

          Pocillopora (cauliflower stony)

               sp. -  Very small polyp. UV pigments green, turquoise or pink.

                       Most are arborescent, ocassionally massive or encrust-

                       ing. Branched ecomorphs have rounded tips.

                        cdf=9, mhl=5-9, dfm= <15, wcu=3-7, hac=0,

                        fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

          Seriatopora (bush)

               sp. -  Small polyp. Pink, white, brown or green. Long, slender

                       and tapered btanches. Stung by Actinodiscus and 

                       Cladiella. Can be propagated by fragmentation.

                        cdf=5, mhl=4-9, dfm= <15, wcu=3-7, hac=0, 

                        fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str



         Family Acroporidae

          Acropora (finger and branch)

               sp. -  Small-polyp. Most have branching ecomorphs. Rare

                       massive and encrusting growths occur. Branching forms

                       include staghorns, clusters, plates and tables. Colors

                       include blue, green, purple, pink, cream, yellow, brown

                       or red. Well over 100 species exist. Can be propagated 

                       by fragmentation. Stung by Actinodiscus

                        cdf=8, mhl=4-9, dfm= <15, wcu=4-9, hac=0, 

                        fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

               palmata - (elkhorn)  Atlantic. Stout thick branches or encrust-

                       ing. Flattened horizontally. Can be fragmented.

                        cdf=8, mhl=4-9, dfm= <15, wcu=4-9, hac=0, 

                        fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

               cervicornis - (staghorn) Atlantic. Long thin branches. Very

                       rapid growth rate.

                        cdf=8, mhl=4-9, dfm= <15, wcu=4-9, hac=0, 

                        fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str



         Family Faviidae

          Favia (moon or star)

               sp. -  Medium-polyp. Leaf, flat or half-sphere forms. Polyps in 

                       large cups. Tentacles unfold at night. Brown, white or 

                       yellow. UV pigments green. Can sting other corals with 

                       tentacles or secretions.

                        cdf=4, fll=4-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-6, dfm= <24, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=2, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

          Favites (moon or star)

               sp. -  Medium-polyps. Leaf, flat or half-sphere forms. Polyps in

 

                       large cups. Tentacles unfold at night. Brown, pink or 

                       red. UV pigments green. Can sting other corals with ten-

                       tacles or secretions.

                        cdf=4, fll=4-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-6, dfm= <24, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=2, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

          Leptoria (closed brain)

               phrygia -  Small polyps. Massive growths. Tentacles retracted 

                       during day. Brown or green. Patterned valleys.

                        cdf=5, fll=5-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3 dfm= <36, wcu=2-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

          Diploria (closed brain)

               sp. -  Massive and rounded. Can be flattened or encrusted.

                       Yellow, brown, greenish or gray-brown. Tentacles ex-

                       pand out at night. 

                        cdf=5, fll=5-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=2-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

          Manicina (folded)

               areolata - Large-polyps. Very similar to Trachyphyllia geofroyi.

 

                       Tentacles extend at night. 

                        cdf=3, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=4-8,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str

          Caulastrea (tooth)

               sp. -  Large-polyp. Branching coral. Each branch end has a 

                       large rounded polyp. Tentacles extend out a night. 

                       Green, brown, gray and blue. Similar to some Euphyllia 

                       species.

                        cdf=5, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=4-8,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str



         Family Oculinidae

          Galaxea (crystal or scapel)

               fascicularis - (crystal or galaxy) Medium-polyps. Small rounded

                       heads. UV pigments green. Tentacles extended during 

                       the day.

                        cdf=7, mhl=0-6, dfm= <36, wcu=4-8,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str     



         Family Agariciidae

          Pachyseris (phonograph-record)

               speciosa - Large-Polyp. Valleys form grooves. Green or red 

                       natural pigment.

                        cdf=4, fll=4-9, dff= <24, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=4-8,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/mpl, add=cal/str     



         Family Caryophylliidae

          Euphyllia (bouquet)

               fimbriata - (hammer or anchor or ridge) Large-polyp. Straight 

                       tentacles with u-shaped or hammer shaped tips. Can 

                       extend tentacles out very far and sting other corals.

                        cdf=6, fll=4-9, dff= <24, mhl=0-7, dfm= <36, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=1, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str   

               crista - (bubble-tentacled) Large-polyp. Beige or light brown. 

                       Some are green. Tentacles branch into 3 or more twigs

                       at end. Rounded tips are white. Can extend tentacles

                       out very far and sting other corals.

                        cdf=5, fll=4-9, dff= <24, mhl=0-7, dfm= <36, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=1, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str    

               glabrescens - (torch) Large-polyp. Straight tentacles with 

                       white tips. Can extend tentacles out very far and 

                       sting other corals.

                        cdf=7, fll=4-9, dff= <24, mhl=0-7, dfm= <36, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=1, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str 

               divisa - (frogspawn or wall or vase) Large-polyp. Green or 

                       light brown.Tentacles sub-branch with numerous rounded 

                       bumps. These are white or yellow. Can extend tentacles 

                       out very far .

                        cdf=5, fll=4-9, dff= <24, mhl=0-6, dfm= <36, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=1, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str    

          Catalaphyllia (wonder or scalloped)

               jardinei - (elegance, meat, wonder) Large-polyp. Tentacles alway

                       extended. Have white or red tips. UV pigment green. Can 

                       sting very strongly.

                        cdf=2, fll=4-9, dff= <24, mhl=0-7, dfm= <36, wcu=2-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str   

          Plerogyra (bladder)

               sinuosa - (bubble or bladder) Large-polyp. Expand to bubble 

                       polyps in day and tentacles at night. Natural pigment 

                       white. Can be green or pink.Very strong sting. 

                        cdf=1, fll=3-9, dff= <24, mhl=0-5, dfm= <36, wcu=2-7,

                        hac=1, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str   



         Family Mussidae

          Lobophyllia (umbel)

               sp. - Large-polyp. Fleshy mantle. Olive to dark green. Some-

                       times pinkish or red.

                        cdf=3, fll=4-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-2, dfm= <36, wcu=4-8,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str

          Isophyllia (atlantic folded)

               sp. - Large-polyp. Deep red natural pigment for deep specimens.

                       Green, beige or turquoise for shallow water.

                        cdf=3, fll=4-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-2, dfm= <36, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str

          Scolymia (caribbean goblet)

               vitiensis - Large one polyp coral. Fleshy mantle. Tentacles out 

                       at night. UV pigments green.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=2-5,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str

          Cynarina [Acanthophyllia] (goblet)

               lacrymalis - Large one polyp coral. Fleshy mantle. Tentacles out

 

                       at night. UV pigments green.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=2-5,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str



         Family Dendrophylliidae

          Tubastrea (red or yellow cup)

               aurea - (red or yellow cup) Natural pigment yellow to shiny 

                       orange. Medium large polyp. Tentacles partially extend-

                       ed during day and fully at night.

                        cdf=1, fll=0-4, dff= <30, wcu=4-8,

                        hac=0, fod=zpl/chf, add=cal/str

          Turbinaria (dish or crater)

               sp. -  Large-polyp. Vase shaped, leaf, fans or folds. Brownish,

                       yellow, white or green. Tentacles partially or fully 

                       extended during the day. 

                        cdf=5, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=2-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str



         Family Trachyphylliidae

          Trachyphyllia (large polyp or open brain)

               geofroyi - (open-brain or crater or puff) Large-polyps. Natural

                       pigment color gray-green, beige-brown, rust brown to

                       deep red. UV pigment green, torquoise or blue. Ten-

                       tacles extend at night. 

                        cdf=3, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-3, dfm= <36, wcu=2-6,

                        hac=3, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str



         Family Fungiidae

          Fungia (mushroom stony corals)

               sp. -  Single large-polyp. Pale-brown, pink, purple, blue and 

                       green. Short tentacles are usually retracted during 

                       the day. Usually round but can take on different eco-

                       morphs. Elongated forms have groved mouth.

                        cdf=8, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-5, dfm= <36, wcu=3-8,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str

          Heliofungia (plate)

               actiniformis - Single large polyp. Gray, blue or green long 

                       tentacles always extended during the day. Paler tips.

                       Prefers sandy substrate.

                        cdf=7, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-4, dfm= <36, wcu=2-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str

          Polyphllia (boomerang)

               talpina - Large-polyp. Extremelly elongated. Tentacles extend-

                       ed during the day and short Has central groove. Brown

                       or paler in color.

                        cdf=4, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-5, dfm= <36, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str

          Herpolitha (hedgehog)

               limax - Large-polyp. Extremelly elongated. Tentacles extended 

                       during the day and short Has central groove. Brown or 

                       paler in color. Very similar to Polyphyllia talpina.

                        cdf=4, fll=3-9, dff= <20, mhl=0-5, dfm= <36, wcu=3-7,

                        hac=0, fod=sym/zpl/chf, add=cal/str

 

       - Order Corallimorpharia (mushroom or false corals)

          Family Actinodiscidae

           Actinodiscus (disk anemones or mushroom coral)

               malaccensis - (brown or fuzzy) Surface covered with small bush 

                       like forms. Light or beige brown and gray green. Brown 



                       specimens found in deeper water. Gray green will fade

                       if light to low.

                        cdf=1, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-4, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               mutabilis - (color changing) Light to dusty brown. They are

                       often speckled with green and with irridescent edges. 

                       Can change some color. Smooth surface with wide bumps. 

                       In nature, below 10 meters. 

                        cdf=1, fll=3-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               ferrugatus - (red-brown) Color is from red-brown to rust-brown. 

                       Smooth surface with wide bumps. Do not like direct metal

 

                       halide. In nature exist at around 10 meters. 

                        cdf=1, fll=3-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               ruber - (reddish-fluorescent or mettalic red mushrooms) Pink to 

                       bright fluorescent red due to UV pigments. Do not like 

                       direct metal halide light. Radial groves and very small

                       bumps on smooth surface.

                        cdf=1, fll=3-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               nummiferus - (burled) From light pink through reddish brown to 

                       a dusty violet. Darker ones occur in shallow waters. 

                       Slightly fluorescent. Small bumps on smooth surface.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               cardinalis - (shiny red) Deep red. Darker red bumps over smooth

                       surface. Expensive and rare. Like actinic light but not

                       direct metal halide. 

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               marmoratus - (marbled or green marble mushrooms) Found in less 

                       than 5 meters. Slightly rough surface with numerous

                       bumps of different color. Do not like direct metal 

                       halide light.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-3, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               coeruleus - (shiny blue or metallic blue mushrooms) Smooth blue

                       surface with faint radial lines. Very small bumps can 

                       occur. Very deep dwelling > 20 meters. Never tolerates 

                       direct metal halide light. Can expand very large.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               striatus - (striped) Many different color patterns. Beige-green 

                       ones have symbiotic algae pigment dominate the uv pig-

                       ment and assimilation pigment. Can have perfectly smooth

                       disk or contain small bumps. All have radial brightly 

                       colored stripes.          

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

               punctatus - (dotted) Main surface body smooth and brown. Have

                       very large colorful bumps with uv pigment. Direct metal

                       halide light could be fatal.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

           Ricordia (caribbean disk anemones) 

               florida - (caribbean or flower anemones) Colors range from light

                       green to a very beautiful dark green to blue and orange.

                       Surface is covered with short tentacles which can in-

                       flate to become bubble-like. Usually found between 10 

                       and 40 feet in the ocean. When tentacles on rim of disk 

                       extended will accept small peices of brine shrimp, etc.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/chf, add=iod/vit

           Rhodactis [Discosoma] (elephant ear) 

               viridis - (green elephant ear) Luminescent turquoise-green ten-

                       tacle disk. Like a giant fuzzy mushroom.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-4, dfm= <36

                        wcu=2-6, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/chf, add=iod/vit

               neglecta - (caribbean elephant ear) Green with some surface. 

                       Radial lines and bumps along with sharp points on edge. 

                       Can become ballon shaped greedy eaters. Do not like 

                       direct metal halide light. 

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-5, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/chf, add=iod/vit

               maeandrinea - (large or folded elephant ear) Very large with a 

                       diameter greater than 15 cm. Can grow to 40 cm in cap-

                       tivity. Sandy to dark brown or gray green. Smooth disk

                       with vertical smooth tenatcles. Do not like strong 

                       current or direct metal halide light. Can catch fish or

                       shrimps in ballon-like trap.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=1-5, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/chf, add=iod/vit

               plumosa - (carpet elephant ear or carpet mushrooms) Large fuzzy

                       coral with bushy tentacles. Will eat some chunk food. 

                       Can form bubble trap. 

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= <36

                        wcu=2-5, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/chf, add=iod/vit



       - Order Zoanthiniaria [Zoantharia][Zoanthidea] ~300 species

                       (Encrusting anemones)

          Family Epizoanthidae

           Parazoanthus (yellow polyps)

              sp. - Small polyps with very long thin tentacles. Bright yel-

                       low to dark yellow. Polyps not connected.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-7, dfm= <24

                        wcu=4-7, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/vit

           Epizoanthus

              sp. - Medium sized small colonial polyp disks with medium sized 

                       tentacles. Fedd mostly on zooplankton. Brown to cinna-

                       mon colored.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-7, dfm= <24

                        wcu=4-7, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/vit

          Family Zoanthidae

           Zoanthus (encrusting anemones)

              sp. - Small circular colonial polyps which have a ring of short

                       tentacles around the rim. Shallow water species have

                       UV pigmentation from red, green, turquoise, lemon yel-

                       low to orange. The mouth, disk and tentacles can be of

                       different coloration. Polyps connected at base. 

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-7, dfm= <24

                        wcu=3-7, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/vit

              sociatus - Small circular colonial polyps which have a ring of 

                       short tentacles around the rim. Turquoise to yellow-

                       green. UV coloration will remain under metal halide or

                       actinic lighting. Polyps connected at base.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-7, dfm= <24

                        wcu=3-7, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/vit

           Palythoa

              sp. - Larger polyp disk than Zoanthus with long pointy tentacles

                       around the rim. Beige-brown, cinnamon to dar "milk cof-

                       fee" brown, graygreen or shiny green. Might not tole-

                       rate direct metal halide. Polyps connected at base.

                        cdf=1, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-4, dfm= <36

                        wcu=3-7, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/vit



  SubClass Alcyonria [Octocorallia]

   Order Alcyonacea (leather and soft corals)

     Family Alcyonidae

      Alcyonium

       fulvum - (yellow encrusting leather) Encrusting beige-yellow to 

               ivory-colored leather coral often many millimetres thick. 

               Finger-like projections develop which have 2 to 5 cm long 

               polyps with 8 flower tentacles. Polyps resemble Sarcophyton

               species polyps.

                    cdf=2, fll=7-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >10

                    wcu=3-6, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod

      Sarcophyton

       sp. - (mushroom leather) Mushroom shaped leather coral. Grow better

               in fluorescent lighting. Need adaption time to tolerate long

               photoperiods of metal halide lighting. Can be propagated via

               cuttings. Long polyp stems with small flower-like tentacles.

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= >12

                    wcu=4-7, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod

       trocheliophorum - (trough leather) Very attractive. Folding lobes 

               of leather coral with short polyps. Can double size in one 

               year. May not tolerate extended metal halide photoperiods and 

               need adaption time. Will shed skin regularly. Can be propagted 

               via cutting from edge lobe. Lives primarily in reef pools and 

               can reach a diameter of more than one meter.

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= >12

                    wcu=4-7, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod

       lobulatum - (leather) Flat, mushroomed-shaped leather. Medium brown 

               base. Similar to mushroom leather coral with very small polyps 

               and larger overall size. Can be propagated via cuttings of 

               base. Will become lighter under adequate lighting. 

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= >12

                    wcu=4-7, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod

       latum -  Dish-like with thick, lobate projections. Polyps are beige-

               yellow to shiny green. Shallow water coral. Can be propagated 

               via cuttings. Also similar to trocheliophorum in morphology. 

               Will grow fast under metal halides. 

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-8, dfm= >12

                    wcu=5-8, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod

       glaucum - Common mushroom shaped leather coral. Beige to sandy color-

               ed or olive to bottle-green. May need to be slowly acclimated

               to bright metal halides. Can be reproduced by cutting of

               entire mushroom cap.

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= >12

                    wcu=5-8, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod

       sp. - Mushroom based leather coral with high, upward-arching lobate 

               edges. Long pure-white polyps. Mushroom from light beige to 

               sandy grey or light yellow in color. Need lots of light for 

               polyps to extend. When acclimated to metal halides, polyps will

               extend to 5 cm and have star shaped tentacles. Can be cultivat-

               ed with cuttings.

                    cdf=3, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-8, dfm= >12

                    wcu=3-6, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod

       ehrenbergi - Similar to glaucum. Mostly pure white, occasionally 

               yellowish or greenish gray secondary polyps. Tentacles of 

               polyps easily distinguished. Skin shed less often. Needs slow 

               acclimation to metal halide lighting. Can be fragmented via 

               cuttings bu is more sensitive.

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= >12

                    wcu=4-7, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod

      Carotalcyon

        sagamianum - Carrot-like leather coral. Deep water orange to crim-

               son red. Has a carrot like body appearance with large polyps 

               which extend out from the body.

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-5, dfm= >12

                    wcu=5-8, hac=1, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod

      Sphaerella

        krempfi - (christmas tree) Resemble evergreen tree and lack symbio-

               tic algae. Brown color. Like strong current and do best on 

               substrate.

                    cdf=3, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= >15

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod

      Lobophytum

        pauciflorum - Encrusting leather with lobed, finger-shaped and occa-

               sionally bushy projections or folds. Can be propagated via cut-

               tings. Grow well under flouorescent lights. Have calcareous 

               needle growths.

                    cdf=2, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-3, dfm= >12

                    wcu=4-7, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod/cal/str

        crassum - An encrusting leather coral similar to pauciflorum. Thick-

               er polyps. Very robust coral. Can also be propagated via cut-

               tings.

                    cdf=2, fll=4-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-3, dfm= >12

                    wcu=4-7, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/mpl, add=iod/cal/str

      Sinularia

        sp - Branching soft coral with a flat body on a thick column 3-4 cm

               tall. Finger-like appendages extend from body and have polyps. 

               Prefer to grow out horizontally. Color is ivory to light gray

               but under intense light will become symbiotic brown. Occasion-

               ally sheds skin.

                    cdf=3, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= >15

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

        macropodia - Branching soft coral with thick-fleshed foot and base.

               Thick branches rise from this base and branch into finger like 

               projections. These are densly covered with polyps. Color is 

               light-beige or grayish white to light brown. Shed skin once a 

               week. Do not like direct halide lite. Can be propagated via 

               cuttings. Contain calcareous needles.

                    cdf=3, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= >15

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

        notanda - This corals morphology lies between the above generic 

               species and macropodia. Grows well but introduce to halides 

               slowly. See sp. for info.

        hirta -(dark brown sea hand) Similar to generic species with stubby

               fingers and fat nobbed appendages. From shallow water. Grow 

               rapidly under metal halides. Color is ivory to cream white when

               retracted, turn milk coffee brown when extended. 

                    cdf=3, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >8

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

        prodigiosa - Similar to macropodia but fingerlobes branch out twice

               into secondary branches. These are thickly set with polyps. See 

               macropodia for info.

        frondosa - Flat crusts with nobbed extensions. Will produce finger

               like appendages in low current areas. Under intense light will

               grow long fingers with large polyps. Like metal halide.

                    cdf=3, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >8

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

        dura - Solid cushion like bodies with burled to stubby finger pro-

               jections. See sp. for info.

        brassica - Colonies resemble cauliflower heads. Dark brown polyps

               on short stalks. Branches and base are creamy white to light

               beige.

                    cdf=2, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >8

                    wcu=1-4, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

        asterolobata - Morphology that resembles macropodia. Strong polyp-

               less base column splits itself into two or more secondary co-

               lumns from which long finger like branches protrude. These 

               branches can divide again. Branches are round and thickly

               covered with delicate polyps. Will shed skin. Base color from

               ivory, light grey or light olive. Will develop uv protection

               matter under halides which is yellowish to greenish and slight-

               ly luminescent.

                    cdf=2, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >8

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

        polydactyla - (many fingered) Squat column from 20 to 50 mm tall 

               is polypless. On upper side of column is a flat polyparywith

               40-50 mm long fingers which are thickly polyped. Base color is

               gray-white to creamy-yellow. Polyps are light to dark brown.

               Under halides polyps will become darker and then symbiotic

               algae are released which lightens the color. Grows well under

               fluorescent lighting.

                    cdf=2, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >8

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

   Cladiella

        sp - Squat column from which many branches extend and divide fur-

               thur upward. Base column lacks polyps while they become more

               dense closer to the ends of branches. Polyps are 3 to 4 cm 

               large. Can be propagated via branch "pinching". Can be acclimat-

               ed to halides. Will grow very fast toward surface of captive 

               reef. Do not shed skin but will release mucus. Not very com-

               patable with hexacorillia.

                    cdf=4, fll=2-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >8

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=sym/lfd/zpl/vit, add=iod/cal/str

    Alcyonium 

        sp. - Bushy or crusty short tree like soft coral. Color is bright 

               yellow, orange or red. Shady locations. Reach 40 to 50 mm tall.

                    cdf=3, fll=2-7, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= >15

                    wcu=5-9, hac=1, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str

        sp. - Encrusting orange colored bushy soft coral. Very small orange

               polyps on bushy orange base. Can be propagated via cuttings. 

                    cdf=3, fll=2-7, dff= >5, mhl=1-2, dfm= >15

                    wcu=5-9, hac=4, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str



    Family Xeniidae

     Xenia (also Cespitularia)

         sp. - Large polyps with thin stems connected at the base. Polyps

               do not fully retract. Very tiny calcareous needles or complete-

               ly lack skeleton. Polyps can be up to 15 mm long under intense

               lighting. Tentacles are pinnated. Some will move polyps in 

               rhythmic motion to help exchange gases. Color is beige, cream

               or light brown. Will develope uv protection matter under ha-

               lides and color will be red, green, blue or irridescent. Can

               be acclimated to halides well. Can do well under fluorescent

               if high levels used. Can overgrow stony corals. Propagated 

               via cuttings.

                    cdf=5, fll=6-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-7, dfm= >10

                    wcu=5-9, hac=4, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/cal/str

         umbellata - Mushroom shaped with seperate polyped branches up to

               50 mm long. Polyps will open and close in rhythmic fashion.

               Tentacles are short and wide and form little cups on thin

               branches. Branches radiate out from base. 

                    cdf=5, fll=6-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-7, dfm= >10

                    wcu=5-9, hac=4, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/cal/str

            elongata - Similar to Xenia sp.. Has a more branched form. See 

               sp. for info.

     Anthelia

         glauca - Very similar to Xenia sp.. Has large polyps. Colonies

               grow very fast.

                    cdf=5, fll=6-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-7, dfm= >10

                    wcu=5-9, hac=4, fod=sym/lfd, add=iod/cal/str



    Family Nephteidae

     Litophyton

         arboreum - Standard bushy and tree shaped soft coral. Must be 

               acclimated to halides slowly. Will do well under fluorescents.

               Can be propagated via cuttings. Pale colors with symbiotic 

               algae. May not be compatable with hexacorillia.

                    cdf=3, fll=6-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-6, dfm= >10

                    wcu=5-9, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str

     Nephthea

         sp. - Tall bushy like soft coral. Smooth thick base with numerous 

               small thickly polyped smaller branches extending from main

               trunks. May not be compatable with hexacorillia.

                    cdf=6, fll=6-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-6, dfm= >10

                    wcu=5-9, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str

     Lemnalia

         sp. -  Tall tree-like soft corals. Polyps are not as dense as

               Nephthea. Long finger branches extend out from main clolumn.

               Must be slowly acclimated to halides. Might not be too com-

               patable with hexacorillia.

                    cdf=7, fll=6-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-6, dfm= >10

                    wcu=5-9, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str

     Dendronephythya

         sp. - Very colorful tree-like corals. Deep water or cave corals

               which require low lighting and frequent feedings of zooplank-

               ton. Will collapse occasionally. Calcareous needles are visi-

               ble in branches. Thin secondary branches extend from main stem.

                    cdf=9, fll=3-7, dff= >10, mhl=1-2, dfm= >20

                    wcu=5-9, hac=2, fod=sym/lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str



         rubeola - Ployps are very thick on short secondary branches which

               protrude from main column. Prefer sand or silt substrates.

               Need frequent feedings and will open polyps if substrate 

               stirred up. Brightly colored coral from low light areas.

                    cdf=9, fll=3-7, dff= >10, mhl=1-2, dfm= >20

                    wcu=5-9, hac=2, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str

         mirabilis - Snowy white polyps exist in thick groups protruding

               from short secondary branches. Form similar to rubeola. 

               No symbiotic algae. Need very low light.

                    cdf=9, fll=3-7, dff= >10, mhl=1-2, dfm= >20

                    wcu=5-9, hac=2, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str



   Order Gorgonacea (gorgonians)

     Family Plexauridae 

      Anthoplexaura (also Euplexaura)

          sp. - Flexible thin branched tree-like skeleton. Composed of

               horny or calcareous skeletal elements. Polyps embedded in 

               crusty layer of living material which surronds skeleton. This

               gorgonian species has few branches and are thickly polyped.

               Some species from caribbean sea contain symbiotic algae. Will

               shed skin. Polyps are up to 5 mm long. Only feed zooplankton

               when polyps are open. Can stir up sediment to entice polyps

               to open.

                    cdf=6, fll=3-7, dff= >10, mhl=1-2, dfm= >20

                    wcu=4-8, hac=0, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str



     Family Gorgonidae

      Eugorgia

          sp. - Very similar to Plexauridae. Branches are thicker.

                    cdf=5, fll=3-7, dff= >10, mhl=1-2, dfm= >20

                    wcu=4-8, hac=0, fod=lfd/zpl, add=iod/cal/str



   Order Stolonifera (pipe corals)

     Family Tubiporidae (organ pipe corals)

      Tubipora  

          musica - (red organ pipe) Flower polyps in red tube-like calcareous

               systems. Will do well under metal halides. Colonies should be 

               whole and not broken off (statement questioned by some).

                    cdf=2, fll=7-9, dff= >5, mhl=3-9, dfm= >10

                    wcu=3-6, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd, add=cal/str



     Family Clavulariidae

      Clavularia

          viridis - (green pipe, green star polyps) Encrusting colonies of

               small pipe shaped flower polyps. The tentacles are very bright

               green and a calcareous webbing connects the polyp stems. Coral

               is found in fist sized colonies existing in shallow water. 

               Will maintain bright green color under metal halide lighting.

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-9, dfm= >10

                    wcu=4-8, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd, add=cal/str



     Family Cornulariidae

       Cornularia

          sp. - (brown pipe) Encrusting colonies of small pipe shaped flower

               polyps. The tentacles are brown and lack the calcareous web-

               bing found in Clavularia viridis. A horny protective shell is

               built around stolon. 

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-9, dfm= >10

                    wcu=4-8, hac=0, fod=sym/lfd, add=cal/str



   Order Telestacea (branched pipe corals)

     Family Telestidae

       Coelogorgia 

          palmosa - (branched pipe) Appears like branching gorgonian corals.

               Branches have short stems from which polyps extend.

                    cdf=2, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-9, dfm= >10

                    wcu=5-9, hac=0, fod=sym/zpl, add=cal/str



   Order Pennatulacea (sea pens)

     Family Veretillidae 

        Cavernularia

           obesa - (sea pen)Cylinder shaped coral from which large tentacles 

               extend. Color can be orange, yellow, buff or white. These 

               animals are not very compatable to reef tanks due to half-

               sessile existence. Require thick substrate.

                    cdf=3, fll=3-8, dff= >5, mhl=1-3, dfm= >20

                    wcu=2-5, hac=0, fod=zpl, add=iod/cal/str



   Order Coenothecalia 

      Family Helioporidae (blue coral)

         Heliopora

            coerulea - (blue coral) Beige to olive colored coral. Smooth sur-

               face with small calices. Polyps are hair-thin tubes about 1 mm

               long. Very small tentacles. Sheds skin. Grows very well under

               metal halides. Shapes can consist of nobs, columns, fingers or

               thick lobes. Dead corals are blue colored.

                    cdf=4, fll=5-9, dff= >5, mhl=1-9, dfm= >10

                    wcu=3-7, hac=0, fod=sym/mpl, add=cal/str

    d Anemones

    a Clams



          Tridacna Maxima (expensive)

                       Purple, blue, green, pink, or combination.

                       cdf=3, fll=5-9, dff <18, mhl=1-7, dfm= >8

                       wcu=1-5, hac=5, fod=sym, add=cal/str

          Tridacna crocea

                       Purple, blue, green, or combination.

                       cdf=5, fll=5-9, dff <6 mhl=1-7, dfm= >5

                       wcu=1-5, hac=5, fod=sym, add=cal/str

          Tridacna squamosa

                       brown, yellow, usually with green rim, black and red??.

                       cdf=3, fll=5-9, dff <18, mhl=1-7, dfm= >5

                       wcu=1-5, hac=5, fod=sym, add=cal/str

          Tridacna derasa

                       brown, sometimes with green strips.

                       cdf=1, fll=5-9, dff <18, mhl=1-7, dfm= >5

                       wcu=1-5, hac=5, fod=sym, add=cal/str

          Tridacna gigas 

                       almost always brown with tiny blue dots,

                       very rarely green, blue or combination.

                       cdf=3, fll=5-9, dff <18, mhl=1-7, dfm= >5

                       wcu=1-5, hac=5, fod=sym, add=cal/str

          Hippopus hippopus

                Very light cream-color mantle with many short tan

                lines.  Shell is lighter in color and much smoother

                than Tridacna clams.  I believe the H.h clams are

                at least as hardy has the hardy T. clams.  They are also 

                supposed to be tank-raised.  They are certainly the 

                cheapest costing at most 1/3 to 1/2 that of a similiar-sized 

                Tridacna (excepting derasa which are almost as cheap).

                The mantle of Hippopus sp clams does not extend beyond

                the shell as it does in Tridacna sp (Delbeek).



    b Snails

    c Crustaceans

 (Rhodophyta)

 

FAMILY:  Chaetangiaceae

 

GenSpec: _Galaxaura marginata_ (Lamouroux)

Des.     Small, mounded seaweed of loosly compressed blades.

         Dichotomous branches often show faint cross banding

         near the tip. Lightly calcified .

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Galaxaura oblongata_ (Lamouroux)

Des.     Bushy, creamy red plant having cylindrical smooth

         dichotomous branches with flexible joints. Well

         calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

 

GenSpec: _Galaxaura subverticillata_ (Kjellman)

Des.     Cylindircal, dark red dichotomous branches ringed by

         minute hairlike filaments, giving the algae a fuzzy

         appearance. Moderatly calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

 

FAMILY:  Corallinaceae

 

GenSpec: _Jania adherens_ (Lamouroux)

Des:     Fine, cylindrical, pink segments connected by flexible

        joints. Dichotomous branching. Forms small tangled

        clumps. Highly calcified.

Range:  Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Jania rubens_ (Lamouroux)

Des:     Rose red somewhat straight segments tightly connected by

         flexible joints. Branching is dichotomous with narrow

         angles (branches almost parallel). Highly calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Haliptilon subulatum_ (Johansen)

Des:     Small, compressed plants, feather-like in appearance.

         Composed of brittle, chalky segments connected by

         flexible joints. Segments appear ringed. Heavily

         calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Amphiroa fragilissima_ (Lamouroux)

Des:     Dense clumps of entangled, fragile, thin jointed

         branches. Generally yellowish pink in color. The

         dichotomous branches form very wide angles (broad

         "Y"'s) at each joint. Highly calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Amphiroa rigida var. antillana_

Des:     Open, brittle species with thin, narrow cylindrical

         branches. Light, off white clumps. Branches dichotomous.

         Highly calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Amphiroa brasiliana_ (Decaisne)

Des:     Pink, joited, dichotomus, somewhat flattened branches.

         Highly calcified

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Amphiroa tribulus_ (Lamouroux)

Des:     Thin, brittle, flattened, sparse branches, forming

         pinkish red bushy clumps. Edges of branches are often

         flattened. Highly calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Amphiroa hancockii_ (W. Taylor)

Des:     Irregualr to dichotomous branching. Colour is pinkish

         purple. Branches composed of thick, flattened segements.

         Heavily calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Neogoniolithon spectabile_ (Setchell and Mason)

Des:     Hard, stony pink plant forming knobby hemispherical

         clumps tighly attached to rocks. Branching is irregular

         to dichotomous, and segments are thick. Heavily

         calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Neogoniolithon strictum_ (Setchell and Mason)

Des:     Hard, brittle pinkish red plant with blunt branching

         and no joints. Branches thick, and tend to grow

         upright. Heavily calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Lithophyllum congestum_ (Foslie)

Des:     Pink to purplish branched, headlike plants that look

         similar to coral. Branches are crowded, stout,

         projections, and are wafer-like. Heavily calcifed.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Mesophyllum mesomorphum_ (Adey)

Des:     An encrusting coralline algae. Dark red to pink over-

         lapping shelves or lobes. Fragil. Heavily calcified.

Range:   Caribbean, Indo-Pacific

 

GenSpec: _Titanoderma_ sp. (Chamberlain)

Des:     An encrusting coralline algae found growing epiphytically

         on many species of algae. Forms thin, pinkish crusts.

         Heavily calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Fosliella farinosa f. callithamnoides (Chamberlain)

Des:     An articualted coralline algae found growing

         epiphytically on many species of algae. Forms thin,

         dichotomously branched colonies. Heavily calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Titanoderma prototypum_ (Woelkerling)

Des:     Cream coloured to red encrusting algae, often with

         a circular pattern present. Heavily calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Titanoderma bermudense_ (Foslie and Howe)

Des:     A grayish to pale red encrusting algae consisting of

         overlapping layers. Often with striations or greyish

         lines present on the surface. Heavily calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Porolithon pachydermum_ (Weber-van Bosse & Foslie)

Des:     Pinkish grey encrusting algae often containing holes

         (caused by a chiton). An important reef builder. Heavily

         calcifed.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Sporolithon episporum_ (Dawson)

Des:     A reddish brown encrusting algae, often growing in

         layers that overlap each other. When broken, exposed

         surface is white. Heavily calcifed.

Range:   Caribbean

 

GenSpec: _Hydrolithon boergesenii_ (Foslie)

Des:     A purple/lavender knobby encrusting algae. Highly

         calcified.

Range:   Caribbean

 

FAMILY:  Squamariaceae

 

GenSpec: _Peyssonnelia_ sp.

Des:     A dark red to maroon encrusting algae. Edges sometimes

         raised above substrate.

Range:   Caribbean

        a Mantis Shrimp

        b bristle worms

BY Gregory Schiemer:

The hermit crabs I'm listing are the ones that I know are safe inhabitants for a reef aquarium. They are all relatively small (less than one inch), eat algae, will not bother other invertebrates or fish (although they occasionally each other during molts), are mostly active at night, are generally long-lived, and definitely fun to watch. All have been offered for sale at one time or another, but never regularly. So, here they are:

Red Hermit Crab (Paguristes cadenati)- A bright red body and legs with yellow eye stalks. Very pretty, but active usually after the lights go out. Found only on the reef as solitary individuals, never in aggregations. My personal favorite. They gently remove micro-algae from in and around corals and polyps. Gr Usually stays on the rocks, but will sift through the substrate.

Orange-Claw Hermit (Calcinus tibicen)-Has a dark red or orange body with one slightly enlarged claw. Found both on coral reefs and rocky substrates, never in large numbers. Very good at eating micro-algae and some macro-algae. Bolder than the Red Hermit, as it will be active during the day. Grows to one inch. Spends almost all of it's time on the rocks.

Polkadotted Hermit (Phimochirus operculatus)-Has a distinctive polkadot red and white, greatly enlarged claw, and blue eyes. Found on coral reefs. This is probably the most aggressive and active of the small hermits. Also eats algae and sifts through the substrate. Grows to about one inch.

Red-Stripe Hermit (Phimochirus holthuisi)-Similar to the Polkadotted Hermit. Found on coral reefs. Active and bold. Will eat algae and anything else it can gets it's claws on, but doesn't seem to bother corals. Grows to about one inch.

• Red, White and Blue Hermit (Paguristes sp.?)-Blue legs with a touch of red, white and black. Found in large aggregations in the sand along the shore line. This is the crab that is being sold in quantity from Florida dealers. They are active all day, but more so at night. They will feed on detritus and micro-algae. Bolder and m not as much as the Polkadotted Hermit. They will occasionally climb on corals, but apparently cause no harm. It's strange that although they are collecin the sand, mine have spent the majority of their time on the rocks in the aquarium. Grows to about three-quarters of an inch.

Red-Leg Hermit (Calcinus californiensis)-Has rrange legs and a greenish black body. Found on rocky inshore substrates in large aggregations. Will eat micro-algae and other bits of food missed by the fish. More active at night, but will forage when the lights are on. Relatively bold and aggressive. Grows to about three-quarters of an inch.

Blue-Eye Hermit (Paguristes sanguinimanus)-Orange body with bright blue eyes. Found on sand flats and patch reefs in aggregations. Good micro-algae eater. Grows to about one-half inch.

Blue-Spotted Hermit (Clibanarius digueti)-Reddish-brown legs with bluish spots. Found on rocky inshore substrates where it feeds on algae. Grows to only one-half inch.

Here is a list of non-aquarium related catalogs that have items that may be of use to the serious aquarist and DIYer.

Ayn Plastic 1-800-431-2451
A nationwide plastic supplier. They have about a dozen outlets and also ship orders. The catalog contains info and specs on many types of plastics that are useful for DIY aquarium projects. They have a $50 minimum order.

C.F. Bowman & Co.

38 Addington Court

East Brunswick, NJ  08816



PH (908) 390-6436

FX (908) 390-6438

C.F. Bowman & Co. I heard of by e-mail, but I later noticed their ad in FAMA. Their prices on acrylic tubing look very good, at least; a 60" long 6" od 1/8" wall clear cast acrylic tube is $35.75, which is about 60% of what I paid. I didn't find extruded tube, but they do say to call for items not listed. They are ostensibly wholesale only, so you may need to give a company name. They also have a $50 minimum order.
• C and H Sales Company P.O. Box 5356 2176 E. Colorado Blvd. Pasadena, CA 91117-9988 Pasadena, CA 91107 (213) 681-4925 (LA) (818) 796-2628 (Pasadena) (800) 325-9465

C & H sells a wide collection of surplus and used equipment, ranging from fans, blowers, pumps (water, air, and otherwise), electronic components, motors (ac, dc, gearhead, stepper), solenoids, laboratory glassware, chart recorders, and tools through stranger things like gyrocompasses and a bit of defense electronics. Prices vary but are often quite good. For those in Southern California, their store has lots of odd items in quantities too small to include in the catalog.

Cole-Palmer 1-800-323-4340 or 708 647-7600
A huge catalog of test equipment and related industrial hardware. Like Markson, much is beyond the need and budget of a hobbiest but much is not.

Grainger Industrial 1-800-323-0620
A nationwide chain of wholesalers of industrial needs. They have many stores in most states. There is probably one near you. They have a huge catalog of all sorts of things for DIYers, float-switches, ballasts, tools, you name it. They are a wholesaler so they technically won't sell to individuals. If you walk in (they have a counter just like any retail hardware store) and pay cash and give the name of a local company, they will sell to you. They just need to have the name of a company to put on the invoice because legal, they are a wholesaler. You don't need a tax number when you are paying cash. You can just go in and give them the name of the company where you work. It is probably a good idea to call ahead and see if the item you want is in stock.

Hach - Products for Analysis 1-800-227-4224
A catalog of testing items. This is the next step if you want better test kits than best kits normally available to hobbiest (like Lamotte). Many of their products are not beyond the budget of a serious hobbiest. The also carry chemistry hardware like glassware.

Herbach and Rademan 1-800-848-8001
A miscellaneous junk catalog with all sorts of electronic, mechanical, and pumping widgets and other gadgets. Also, surplus junk like power supplies. A catalog of a variety of scientific equipment, mostly chemistry related. Many of their items are well beyond the need and budget of hobbiest but much of it is not.

The Surplus Center 1-???-???-????
Another miscellaneous junk catalog with much the same stuff as H&R.

United States Plastic Corp.



1390 Neubrecht Rd.

Lima, Ohio  45801

1-800-537-9724

US Plastics sells a large selection of basic materials, plus an equally large assortment of various manufactured items made of plastic and some related items like fluid pumps. A few of the less common items which come to mind are clear pvc, plastic tanks up to a few thousand gallons, ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene stock, flexible impeller pumps, and plastic welders. Of special interest to the diy'er would be items like the thickened acrylic cement (IMHO required for the best and strongest watertight acrylic joints), their rod, pipe, tube, and sheet stock in pvc and acrylic (where else do you find clear sheet pvc, or 90 degree sweep fittings for lower backpressure?), and the large food-quality drums for storing RO/DI water and mixed saltwater. The fun of finding stuff you didn't know existed shouldn't be under-rated, either.

Q: Can I do this cheaply?
A: No, relative to a similar size fish-only tank. (See cost estimate section)

Q: What if all I want to keep is Anemones?
A: Water quality requirements drop some (Nitrates should remain under 20ppm NO3-).

Q: What are good test kits?
A: Tetra Hardness, Hach Nitrate, Calcium, Iron, Phosphate - (303) 669-3050 LaMotte Phosphate

   Hach Test kit details:

Calcium: Cat. No. 1457-01, Model HA-4P, $47.50, 100 test Dilute your sample 2:1 (Distilled:Saltwater). Each drop of titrant will equal 24mg/l of Ca++. Dilution saves titrant, and yields clearer results with sufficient accuracy. Iron: Cat. No. 22993-00, Model IR-21, $57.50, 100 test Very important if Macro Algae growth of primary interest. Nitrate: Cat. No. 14161-00, Model NI-14, $42.50, 50 test Suggest ordering Saltwater reagent, Cat. No. 20761-99, $18.50 for 100 test. Phosphate: Cat. No. 2248-00, Model PO-19, $54.50, 100 test This test is 2.5 times more sensitive than the LaMotte test. The Hach is rated down to 0.02ppm, the LaMotte 0.05ppm. Silica: Cat. No. 22550-00, Model SI-7, $72.50, 100 test Not tested by any of the authors of this FAQ. Mentioned due to its availability and track record of Hach kits.

Q: Which Salt Mix is best?
A: Instant Ocean works for many. Reef Crystal has had reported problems. Tropic Marin recommended by some. Coralife dissolves fast, can sometimes be found cheap.

Note that all 50 gallon bags of salt are not the same. Instant Ocean bags weigh in at 16lbs each, Coralife at 14.5lbs each. There is no magic here, at a given temperature, a bag of IO will make a solution of higher specific gravity (or more gallons at the same specific gravity) than a bag of Coralife will.

"Slime" algae is actually cyanobacteria, not an algae. While its growth is often a sign of poor water quality, it grows in some tanks with fairly good water quality. Too much iodine and too little current are known to encourage its growth. Nothing is known to eat it. The best thing to do is to siphon this out as soon as it appears. If it threatens to overgrow everything, it can be treated chemically with a light dose of Maracyn, which has not been seen to harm the biofilter or hardy inverts. Treat once with one 200mg table per 15-20 gallons, leaving your skimmer off for 24 hours. When you turn the skimmer back on, it will foam like crazy and remove the remaining medication very quickly. This will clear the tank, although if water conditions are not otherwise improved, it may return in a few weeks.

Others have found cyanobacteria surviving, and sometimes blooming, in tanks that have excellent water quality. They used a somewhat different schedule of Maracyn treatment to eradicate the infestation: One 200 mg tablet per 50 gallons total water capacity (don't forget the sump and skimmers) dosed daily for 5 days. Their experience is that this will permanently cure the problem, without any return. Of course, if the bacteria is re-introduced to the tank, all bets are off. They also disable the skimmer during the treatment, and siphon off all dead and dying material after day 3.

The best way to deal with hair and turf algae is not to let it grow to begin with. Keep the tank dark while it is initially cycling. Keep nitrates and phosphates as low as possible, and siphon out detritus. Keep herbivores in the tank. Snails (as many as 1 for every 2-3 gallons) will eat turf algae, and hair algae before it gets long. Tangs (especially Kole, Sailfin, and Yellow) and many small blennies will eat many forms of algae. If the tank does become overgrown, pull as much as possible out by hand. Reduce the light cycle, or if there is nothing light sensitive in the tank, leave it in darkness for a couple of weeks. Get more herbivores. Be sure to siphon out their droppings, which if left in the tank make great algae fertilizer. I have found that urchins can help recover an overgrown tank, although they will knock things over and eat any kind of algae, including desirable calcarious algaes.

"The Marine Aquarium Handbook, Beginner to Breeder"
by Martin A. Moe, Jr.
1982. Norns Publishing Company
ISBN 0-939960-02-08

Best way to learn the very basics, and an excellent first reference on many topics afterwards. Not reef oriented. A must buy for the beginner.

"The Marine Aquarium Reference, Systems and Invertebrates"
by Martin A. Moe, Jr.
1989. Green Turtle Publications, Florida
ISBN 0-939960-05-2

The place to begin looking for almost every topic. Discussion of filtration is exhaustive, though a bit spare on modern Berlin practice (is this still true in the new edition?). A must buy for every reefkeeper.

"Advanced Reef Keeping I, A Comprehensive Guide to Setting up Your Reef Tank."
by Albert J. Thiel
1989. Aardvark Press
ISBN 0-945777-01-9

"Small Reef Aquarium Basics, The Optimum Aquarium for the Reef Hobbyist"
by Albert J. Thiel
1989. Aardvark Press
ISBN - 0945777-02-7

Some good information buried among dubious advice and the most wretched editing ever conceived. His filtration ideas are rather old-fashioned. This guy sold the expensive equipment that he recommends, so Caveat Emptor should be your motto.

Thiel advocates one particular way of maintaining reef aquaria. It's not the only way, and it may not be the best way, but it does work. The usual advise is for people to read his books, but to do so skeptically.

"Corals of the World, Biology and Field Guide"
by Dr. Elizabeth M. Wood
1983. T.F.H. Publications
ISBN 0-87666-809-0
TFH# H-1049

A good reference for anyone who intends to keep stony corals. Like other books not specifically written for the hobbyist, it does not discuss the care of corals. May be out of print.

"The Reef Tank Owner's Manual"
by John H. Tullock
October 10, 1990. Aardvark Press
ISBN 0-945777-06-x

Discussion of filtration is old-fashioned, similar to Thiel's books but somewhat more grammatical. Good discussions of individual animals and animal choices aimed at the beginning and intermediate reefkeeper.

Invertebrates: Tube-, Soft-, and Branching Corals"
by Peter Wilkens / Johannes Birkholz
1986, Engelbert Pfriem Verlag, Wuppertal
ISBN 3-921677-14-9

Invertebrates: Stone and False Corals, Colonial Anemones"
by Peter Wilkens
1990, Engelbert Pfriem Verlag, Wuppertal
ISBN 3-921677-15-7

only books available which discusses the care of individual species of corals. The authors' experience and reputation is vast. Unfortunately the production quality of the English translation s poor, but there is no other comparable reference. A must buy for anyone intending to eep corals. These may be out of print, so finding them may be very difficult.

Fishes for the Invertebrate Aquarium, 3rd ed."
by Helmut Debelius
1989. Aquarium Systems

Knights of the Sea"

Absolutely fantastic shrimp book. Out of print, gold if you can get your hand on it.

Helmut Debelius. (An absolutely fascinating speaker, BTW. If you ever get a chance to hear him speak, do so!) Quite a lot of good information on reef-compatible fishes.

Veron
Corals of Australia and The definitive reference book for the Indo-Pacific stony corals. The original is out of print and very difficult to find. A reprint run has recently been done.

"Living Corals"
by Douglas Faulkner & Richard Chesher
1979, Crown Publishers, Inc.
ISBN 0-517-53854-7

This is one of those big picture books of corals, but it's the best one I've ever seen. The photos are all top-notch, most show large groupings of a single species. The descriptions are not with the pictures, which can be disconcerting until you get used to it. I believe this book is out-of-print, though I often find used copies (fairly cheap!) at a local bookstore.

"Marine Plants of the Caribbean, A Field Guide from Florida to Brazil"
by Diane Scullion Littler, Mark M. Littler, Katina E. Bucher,& James N. Norris
1989. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C.
ISBN 0-87474-607-8

Quite a good reference book describing various species of algae that are found in the waters of the Caribbean.

"Seaweeds of Hawaii, A photographic Identification Guide"
by William H. Magruder and Jeffrey W. Hunt
1979. The Oriental Publishing Company
ISBN 0-932596-12-6

Another excellent reference identifying algae found around Hawaii. Out of print.

"The Manual of Marine Invertebrates"
by Martyn Haywood and Sue Wells
1989. Salamander Books Ltd., London
ISBN 0-86101-474-X

I'd recommend the Manual of Marine Invertebrates by Hayward. While this does not go into a great deal of detail on anything, it covers every class of inverts and is good for learning about what's on your live rock and the basics of care for different kinds of creatures.

Yes! I'd forgotten about this one. It contains quite a few mistakes, but is a good reference book nonetheless.

Walls, Jerry, "Encyclopedia of Marine Inverts",
(TFH, Neptune, NJ: 1988)
ISBN 0-86622-141-7.

and found that the later (Wall's book) appeared to have a lot more info. It isn't a great book from the aquarium point of view but does cover the basics of all the Phyla. It has a lot of color plates. I was able to identify a number of Live-Rock ReefCritters(tm) with it.

"Dr. Burgess's Atlas of Marine Aquarium Fishes"
by Dr. Warren E. Burgess, Dr. Herbert R. Axelrod, & Raymond E. Hunziker III
1988. T.F.H. Publications
TFH# H-1100

"The big picture book of fishes." Considered the first book to look marine fish up in. Second edition has been published.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Temperature C F 20.00 68.00 20.20 68.36 20.40 68.72 20.60 69.08 20.80 69.44 21.00 69.80 21.20 70.16 21.40 70.52 21.60 70.88 21.80 71.24 22.00 71.60 22.20 71.96 22.40 72.32 22.60 72.68 22.80 73.04 23.00 73.40 23.20 73.76 23.40 74.12 23.60 74.48 23.80 74.84 24.00 75.20 24.20 75.56 24.40 75.92 24.60 76.28 24.80 76.64 25.00 77.00 25.20 77.36 25.40 77.72 25.60 78.08 25.80 78.44 26.00 78.80 26.20 79.16 26.40 79.52 26.60 79.88 26.80 80.24 27.00 80.60 27.20 80.96 27.40 81.32 27.60 81.68 27.80 82.04 28.00 82.40 28.20 82.76 28.40 83.12 28.60 83.48 28.80 83.84 29.00 84.20 29.20 84.56 29.40 84.92 29.60 85.28 29.80 85.64 30.00 86.00 Alkalinity meq/l ppm KH CaCO3 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 2.50 0.14 0.10 5.00 0.28 0.15 7.50 0.42 0.20 10.00 0.56 0.25 12.50 0.70 0.30 15.00 0.84 0.35 17.50 0.98 0.40 20.00 1.12 0.45 22.50 1.26 0.50 25.00 1.40 0.55 27.50 1.54 0.60 30.00 1.68 0.65 32.50 1.82 0.70 35.00 1.96 0.75 37.50 2.10 0.80 40.00 2.24 0.85 42.50 2.38 0.90 45.00 2.52 0.95 47.50 2.66 1.00 50.00 2.80 1.10 55.00 3.08 1.20 60.00 3.36 1.30 65.00 3.64 1.40 70.00 3.92 1.50 75.00 4.20 1.60 80.00 4.48 1.70 85.00 4.76 1.80 90.00 5.04 1.90 95.00 5.32 2.00 100.00 5.60 2.10 105.00 5.88 2.20 110.00 6.16 2.30 115.00 6.44 2.40 120.00 6.72 2.50 125.00 7.00 2.60 130.00 7.28 2.70 135.00 7.56 2.80 140.00 7.84 2.90 145.00 8.12 3.00 150.00 8.40 3.10 155.00 8.68 3.20 160.00 8.96 3.30 165.00 9.24 3.40 170.00 9.52 3.50 175.00 9.80 3.60 180.00 10.08 3.70 185.00 10.36 3.80 190.00 10.64 3.90 195.00 10.92 4.00 200.00 11.20 4.20 210.00 11.76 4.40 220.00 12.32 4.60 230.00 12.88 4.80 240.00 13.44 5.00 250.00 14.00 (1) (50) (2.8) Nitrogen as Ammonia, Nitrite, Nitrate N N NH3 NO2 NO3 ppm uM/l mg/l mg/l mg/l 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.005 0.357 0.006 0.016 0.022 0.010 0.714 0.012 0.033 0.044 0.015 1.071 0.018 0.049 0.066 0.020 1.429 0.024 0.066 0.089 0.025 1.786 0.030 0.082 0.111 0.030 2.143 0.036 0.099 0.133 0.035 2.500 0.043 0.115 0.155 0.040 2.857 0.049 0.131 0.177 0.045 3.214 0.055 0.148 0.199 0.050 3.571 0.061 0.164 0.221 0.055 3.929 0.067 0.181 0.244 0.060 4.286 0.073 0.197 0.266 0.065 4.643 0.079 0.214 0.288 0.070 5.000 0.085 0.230 0.310 0.075 5.357 0.091 0.246 0.332 0.080 5.714 0.097 0.263 0.354 0.085 6.071 0.103 0.279 0.376 0.090 6.429 0.109 0.296 0.399 0.095 6.786 0.115 0.312 0.421 0.100 7.143 0.121 0.329 0.443 0.15 10.71 0.18 0.49 0.66 0.20 14.29 0.24 0.66 0.89 0.25 17.86 0.30 0.82 1.11 0.30 21.43 0.36 0.99 1.33 0.35 25.00 0.42 1.15 1.55 0.40 28.57 0.49 1.31 1.77 0.45 32.14 0.55 1.48 1.99 0.50 35.71 0.61 1.64 2.21 0.55 39.29 0.67 1.81 2.44 0.60 42.86 0.73 1.97 2.66 0.65 46.43 0.79 2.14 2.88 0.70 50.00 0.85 2.30 3.10 0.75 53.57 0.91 2.46 3.32 0.80 57.14 0.97 2.63 3.54 0.85 60.71 1.03 2.79 3.76 0.90 64.29 1.09 2.96 3.99 0.95 67.86 1.15 3.12 4.21 1.00 71.43 1.21 3.29 4.43 1.50 107.14 1.82 4.93 6.64 2.00 142.86 2.43 6.57 8.86 2.50 178.57 3.04 8.21 11.07 3.00 214.29 3.64 9.86 13.29 3.50 250.00 4.25 11.50 15.50 4.00 285.71 4.86 13.14 17.71 4.50 321.43 5.46 14.79 19.93 5.00 357.14 6.07 16.43 22.14 5.50 392.86 6.68 18.07 24.36 6.00 428.57 7.29 19.71 26.57 6.50 464.29 7.89 21.36 28.79 7.00 500.00 8.50 23.00 31.00 7.50 535.71 9.11 24.64 33.21 8.00 571.43 9.71 26.29 35.43 8.50 607.14 10.32 27.93 37.64 9.00 642.86 10.93 29.57 39.86 9.50 678.57 11.54 31.21 42.07 10.00 714.29 12.14 32.86 44.29 (1) (1000/14)(17/14)(46/14)(62/14) Calcium Ca CaCO3 dH mg/l ppm 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.00 12.50 0.70 10.00 25.00 1.40 15.00 37.50 2.10 20.00 50.00 2.80 25.00 62.50 3.50 30.00 75.00 4.20 35.00 87.50 4.90 40.00 100.00 5.60 45.00 112.50 6.30 50.00 125.00 7.00 55.00 137.50 7.70 60.00 150.00 8.40 65.00 162.50 9.10 70.00 175.00 9.80 75.00 187.50 10.50 80.00 200.00 11.20 85.00 212.50 11.90 90.00 225.00 12.60 95.00 237.50 13.30 100.00 250.00 14.00 110.00 275.00 15.40 120.00 300.00 16.80 130.00 325.00 18.20 140.00 350.00 19.60 150.00 375.00 21.00 160.00 400.00 22.40 170.00 425.00 23.80 180.00 450.00 25.20 190.00 475.00 26.60 200.00 500.00 28.00 210.00 525.00 29.40 220.00 550.00 30.80 230.00 575.00 32.20 240.00 600.00 33.60 250.00 625.00 35.00 260.00 650.00 36.40 270.00 675.00 37.80 280.00 700.00 39.20 290.00 725.00 40.60 300.00 750.00 42.00 320.00 800.00 44.80 340.00 850.00 47.60 360.00 900.00 50.40 380.00 950.00 53.20 400.00 1000.00 56.00 420.00 1050.00 58.80 440.00 1100.00 61.60 460.00 1150.00 64.40 480.00 1200.00 67.20 500.00 1250.00 70.00 (1) (100/40)(56/400)

The original document was created by the joint effort of many individual people, sharing a common interest in "Reef Keeping". Those who allowed their names published were:

• Patti Beadles
• Craig Bingman
• Kevin Carpenter (editor)
• Gary Dudley
• Frank M. Greco
• Ken Koellner
• Dustin Laurence (FTP site sponser)
• Teresa Moore
• David O'Brien
• Paul Prior
• Keith Rogers
• Mark Rosenstein
• Greg Smith
• Spass Stoiantschewsky
• Anthony Tse
• Steve Tyree
• John Ward (FTP site sponser)



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